<p>Macleay River, an open and trained mature wave dominated, barrier estuary, is located in the Northern Tablelands and Mid North Coast districts of New South Wales, Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Course and features</h2><br>
<p>Formed by the confluence of the Gara River, Salisbury Waters and Bakers Creek, the Macleay River rises below Blue Nobby Mountain, east of Uralla within the Great Dividing Range. The river flows in a meandering course generally east by south, joined by twenty-six tributaries including the Apsley, Chandler, and Dyke rivers and passing through a number of spectacular gorges and waterfalls in Cunnawarra National Park and Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, before reaching its mouth at the Tasman Sea of the South Pacific Ocean, near South West Rocks. The river descends 460 m over its 298 km course.</p><br>
<p>The river flows adjacent to the city of Kempsey. At the river is traversed by the Pacific Highway via the Macleay River Bridge, the longest road bridge in Australia. The river is also traversed by the North Coast railway line.</p><br>
<p>The Macleay River is liable to flooding in the Kempsey area, on occasions causing great damage. During times of peak flooding, the Macleay River can hold over 200,000 GL of water.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Australian Aboriginal Dunghutti people are the traditional custodians of the land surrounding the Macleay River catchment and the Apsley River catchment, whose descendants are now concentrated in the lower Macleay River. Archaeological evidence of Aboriginal camp sites have been found on the upper terraces of the Macleay and Apsley rivers.</p><br>
<p>John Oxley, failed to realize the potential of this river in 1820 when he did not navigate far enough up the river to see the magnificent stands of timber and the fertile land. The river was vaguely referred to as the New River from descriptions given by Aborigines. In 1826 Captain Wright travelled overland from Port Macquarie and explored to the head of navigation at Belgrave Falls, a series of rapids to the west of the present town of Kempsey. Then called Wrights River, Major Archibald Clunes Innes, Commandant of Port Macquarie Penal Settlement, sent the first government gang of Australian red cedar (Toona ciliata) cutters to work here in 1827.</p><br>
<p>More cedar camps were established on the Macleay during the 1830s and the area was also a haven for escaped convicts. By 1841, about 200 cutters were working on the river area, where violence and theft of logs was not uncommon. Demand and prices dropped in 1842 and cutting along the Macleay diminished although it continued in the upper tributaries. When Europeans arrived in the area around the 1820s the river mouth was just south of Grassy Head, and almost a mile wide with a sand spit in the middle. The small town of Stuarts Point was established on the river just inside to serve arriving ships.</p><br>
<p>The coastal strip extending from South West Rocks to Grassy Head is a wide delta with various channels connected to the river. Around 1885 English marine engineer John Coode advised on improvements to various rivers and ports in Australia, including the Macleay. The Department of Public Works prepared four plans for improvements to the mouth, Coode favoured improving the existing entrance. In 1893 a flood enlarged an opening near South West Rocks and the department elected to improve that, called the New Entrance, though Coode had thought it not enough to drain all the waters of the district. Work on the new entrance commenced in April 1896, improving the channel and adding training walls. A new pilot station was built in 1902, establishing the town of South West Rocks. Work was completed in 1906. Today the old mouth has silted up, leaving Stuarts Point on a dead-end reach.</p><br>
<p>Variously known as Wright River, Trail River, New and McLeay rivers it was named the Macleay River in honour of Innes’s father-in-law, Alexander Macleay, Scottish-born scientist and colonial secretary of New South Wales.</p><br>
<p>Skokholm  is an island 2.5 mi off the coast of south west Pembrokeshire in Wales, lying south of the neighbouring island of Skomer. The whole island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest as is Skomer. The surrounding waters are a marine reserve and all are part of the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>At its greatest, Skokholm is 1 mi long and 0.5 mi wide, covering 106 hectare. Made up of Old Red Sandstone, its cliffs stand between 70 ft in the northeast, to 160 ft in the southwest. Battered by storms, the high cliffs and isolated nature of the island makes it a haven for seabirds. There is a rock outcrop close to the centre of the island, which provides shelter to the island&#39;s only structures. Its greatest height is 55 metres (180 feet).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Skokholm is Norse for "wooded island," very similar to the Swedish capital name Stockholm, named by the Vikings who visited the Bristol Channel.</p><br>
<p>An undated charter is to be found in the British Museum by which William Marshal the Younger, Earl of Pembroke 1219-31, grants to a certain Gilbert de Vale, land in Ireland in exchange for lands in Pembrokeshire, including the island of Scoghholm. The revenue from the island from 1324 to 1472 was recorded in Ministerial Accounts. Some years later, the islands were in the hands of Sir John Perrott, supposedly a natural son of Henry VIII. The island was bought for £300 in 1646 by William Philipps, a barrister, and it was kept in the family for the next 360 years. In 2005 his descendant Mrs. Osra Lloyd-Philipps (1920 - 24 March 2005) of Dale Castle died. The trustees of the estate decided to offer the island for sale, with first refusal going to the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales, who had managed the island for the last 50 years on their behalf. After a large fundraising effort, the island was successfully purchased in April 2006 for £650,000, and designated a national nature reserve in December 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Bird observatory</h2><br>
<p>In 1933 Skokholm was functioning as a bird observatory, the first in Britain, founded by Ronald Lockley; its prime function was the ringing of wild birds of resident, visiting or migrating species and research. Lockley started the Pembrokeshire Bird Protection Society in 1938, now incorporated in the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales. In 1948 the West Wales Field Society (WWFC), also now Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales, first took the Lease of Skokholm from the owners of the Dale Castle Estate. The WWFC followed on the Lease by Ronald Lockley which had run from 1927 but direct involvement commenced two years earlier when in 1946 the bird observatory was re-opened after the war. Ringing on Skokholm ceased from 1976. During the period of radar studies of migration around 1960 it became clear that bird movements as observed at the observatories were by no means representative of the whole and, inevitably, the significance of the observatories in the study of migration waned. Skokholm had been the site of the most thorough British studies of the storm petrel and razorbill amongst the seabirds and the oystercatcher and the wheatear amongst the landbirds. "There can be few other islands anywhere in the world that can boast the continuity of biological recordings, save for wartime years, that has taken place on Skokholm." John Fursdon, Warden 1946. Skokholm Island was re-accredited as a bird observatory in 2014, with resident wardens Richard Brown and Giselle Eagle.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The island is composed entirely of mudstones and sandstones of late Silurian/early Devonian age assigned to the Milford Haven Group of the Lower Old Red Sandstone. This suite of rocks was formerly known as the Red Marls. The strata are folded into a syncline with an east-west axis hence the rocks on the north coast dip inland i.e. to the south, at 25° to 40° whilst those on the south coast also dip inland i.e. to the north, even more steeply, at up to 80°. A couple of north-south aligned faults affect the strata at the eastern end of the island, erosion along them being responsible for both Crab Bay and North Haven.</p><br>
<p>A couple of areas of till, a relict of the Irish Sea Icesheet from the last Ice Age are smeared across the island&#39;s surface.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Most of Skokholm is simple sub-maritime grassland, with the wetter areas graded as heath and some salt marsh. All of these areas house common natural species including three-lobed water crowfoot, tree mallow, marsh St. John’s wort, small nettle, and sea campion.</p><br>
<h3>Fungi</h3><br>
<p>Larger fungi were extensively studied in the 1940s and 1950s by Frederick Parker-Rhodes who published a series of papers based on his research on the island. Skokholm is the type locality for the corticioid species Trechispora clanculare (Park.-Rhodes) K.H. Larss., described as new to science from the island where it was first found in a puffin burrow. Due to its isolated nature, Skokholm houses British nationally scarce lichens including golden hair lichen (Teloschistes flavicans).</p><br>
<h3>Bird life and larger fauna</h3><br>
<p>Ronald Lockley, a pioneering ornithologist, especially famous for his work on puffins and shearwaters, wrote many books featuring Skokholm, where he lived and researched for many years.</p><br>
<p>Today Skokholm is the site of the third largest Manx shearwater colony (15% of world population), and 20% of Europe&#39;s population of storm petrels, as well as (in 2008) 4,500 puffins and 2,000 guillemots and razorbills. A survey in 2016 found the population of puffins to be just under 7,000 and that of guillemots 4,000, the highest number since 1927. There are also large colonies of lesser black-backed gulls, herring gulls and great black-backed gulls. The island is a breeding site for oystercatchers, chough, skylark and wheatear.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the impressive numbers of breeding seabirds, it is a good UK site for passage migrants, including chiffchaff, willow warblers, whitethroat, redstart, and spotted and pied flycatchers.</p><br>
<p>After the Norman invasion of north Pembrokeshire led by Robert fitz Martin, the Normans built a rabbit farm on the island, later revived during the Victorian era. As a result, the island houses an example of long-term rabbit-maintained grass. House mice were accidentally introduced in the late 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The first Skokholm Lighthouse was built in 1776, and then rebuilt at its present site in 1861. The lighthouse forms a triangle of protection into Milford Haven along with the lighthouses at South Bishop and the Smalls. Automated in 1983, it is now monitored and controlled from the Trinity House Operations Control Centre at Harwich in Essex.</p><br>
<p>The original farm cottage restored by Lockley is now a grade II listed building, and the surrounding farm buildings have been converted to accommodation units.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>After their purchase of the island, and taking into account the poor and dilapidated nature of the island&#39;s infrastructure, at present Skokholm may only be visited by prior arrangement with the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales.</p><br>
<p>Connecting boats leave from Martins Haven, with booked visitors able to stay on this island in basic accommodation. In 2010, the trust announced improvements to the islands landing jetty to allow easier access, with a £38,250 development project funded by Crown Estates and RWE Npower.</p><br>
<p>Mount Canobolas, a mountain on a spur of the Great Dividing Range, is located in the Central Tablelands region of New South Wales, Australia.</p><br>
<p>With an elevation of 1,390 m above sea level, Mount Canobolas, an extinct volcano, it is the highest mountain in the region. Situated 13 km southwest of the city of Orange, it is about 250 km west of Sydney.</p><br>
<p>The northern slopes of the mountain, with fertile volcanic soil, are popular cold-climate wine producing area.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name comes from two Aboriginal words, "Gaahna Bula". This means "two shoulders" which refers to the summits of Mount Canobolas and Young Man Canobolas.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>There is a 360 degree view from the summit, which is often snow-capped in winter. The mountain is now part of a 15 km&sup2; area controlled by the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, which offers various walks: to Bald Hill; to Young Man Canobolas; Federal Falls to Mount Towac, and other locations. The volcanic peaks give wide views and there are some attractive waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>The top of the mountain is now dominated by numerous towers used for television and radio transmissions across large areas of central New South Wales. These transmitters include towers for Airservices Australia, Royal Australian Air Force, Prime Television, WIN Television, Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Southern Cross Ten.</p><br>
<p>Each year the Orange Community runs the Great Volcanic Mountain Challenge, an 11 km walk and fun run from the Pinnacle to the Summit of Mount Canobolas by the volcanic plugs of Mount Towac and Young Man Canobolas. The inaugural event was held in 2006.</p><br>
<p>Mount Canobolas is an extinct volcanic complex which erupted in several phases between 13 and 11 million years ago, making the mountain a relatively recent geological feature. Earlier eruptions were less violent with free flowing lavas reaching a maximum coverage extent of approximately. Later eruptions became more violent, and producing increasingly viscous lavas with less extensive coverage.</p><br>
<p>The contemporary landscape of Mount Canobolas exhibits erosional features dominated by several remnant peaks. Additional volcanic features are present within the zone of volcanic influence, including vents, dykes, peaks, domes and plugs.</p><br>
<p>The mountain&#39;s geologic history has yielded a variety of landforms which provide a range of environmental habitats, and notably rocky outcrops harbouring rare species of lichens. There are cliff features with waterfalls, such as the popular recreation locality, Federal Falls. Mount Canobolas was listed on the Register of the National Estate because of its geological significance before its closure in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Highest point claims</h2><br>
<p>Mount Canobolas is not, as is sometimes claimed, the highest point between Australias Great Dividing Range and Africa, with both Mount Zeil in Australias Northern Territory and Mount Woodroffe in South Australia being higher, at 1,531 m and 1,435 m, respectively. This would in any case be an insignificant claim to fame, since many of the tallest peaks in the Great Dividing Range are in fact further west than Mount Canobolas is. For example, Mount Bogong in Victoria at 1,986 m and 36&deg;44&prime;S latitude, 147&deg;18&prime;E longitude is 591 m higher and almost a degree and a half longitude further west. This translates to a difference of around 125 km using the degree length formula.</p><br>
<p>The islands of Réunion and Madagascar also have higher peaks and are between the Great Dividing Range and Africa.</p><br>
<p>Grassholm  is a small uninhabited island situated 13 km off the southwestern Pembrokeshire coast in Wales, lying west of Skomer. It is the westernmost point in Wales other than the isolated rocks on which the Smalls Lighthouse stands, and is known for its huge colony of northern gannets. Grassholm has been owned since 1947 by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, and is one of its oldest reserves. It reaches 42 m.</p><br>
<p>Grassholm National Nature Reserve is the third most important site for gannets in the world, after two sites in Scotland; St Kilda and Bass Rock. It serves as a breeding site for 39,000 pairs of the birds, and supports around 10 percent of the world population. The turbulent sea around Grassholm also provides good feeding ground for porpoises and bottlenose dolphins.</p><br>
<p>The island has a significant problem with marine plastic, brought to the island by breeding gannets, as nesting material which the birds have mistaken for seaweed floating in the surrounding waters. The problem has been ongoing through twelve years of RSPB conservation to 2017, and surveys have indicated that 80% of nests contain waste plastics.</p><br>
<p>Boats sail to Grassholm from St Davids Lifeboat Station and Martin&#39;s Haven on the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Geologically, the island is largely formed from keratophyre though the northwest coast and islet of West Tump are formed from basalt. A couple of NE-SW aligned faults cross the island. Raised beaches are present in places.</p><br>
<p>Grassholm has been identified with Gwales, an island featured in the Mabinogion. In the Second Branch of the Mabinogi, Gwales is the site of a fabulous castle where the severed head of Brân the Blessed is kept miraculously alive for eighty years while his companions feast in blissful forgetfulness.</p><br>
<p>On 15 July 1945, the cargo ship ran aground on Grassholm and sank. Nine crew were rescued by the Angle Lifeboat.</p><br>
<p>Megiddo  is an ancient city whose remains form a tell , situated in northern Israel near Kibbutz Megiddo, about 30 km south-east of Haifa. Megiddo is known for its historical, geographical, and theological importance, especially under its Greek name Armageddon. During the Bronze Age, Megiddo was an important Canaanite city-state and during the Iron Age, a royal city in the Kingdom of Israel. Megiddo drew much of its importance from its strategic location at the northern end of the Wadi Ara defile, which acts as a pass through the Carmel Ridge, and from its position overlooking the rich Jezreel Valley from the west. Excavations have unearthed 26 layers of ruins, indicating a long period of settlement.</p><br>
<p>Christians believe that Armageddon will be the site of the final battle between Jesus Christ and the kings of the Earth who go to war against Israel, as outlined in the Book of Revelation.</p><br>
<p>The site is now protected as Megiddo National Park and is a World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Megiddo is also known as Μεγιδδώ/Μαγεδδών, Megiddó/Mageddón in the Septuagint; Mageddo; Assyrian: Magiddu, Magaddu; Magidda and Makida in the Amarna tablets; Egyptian: Maketi, Makitu, and Makedo. The Book of Revelation mentions an apocalyptic battle at Armageddon, a Greek name of the site, derived from the Hebrew "Har Megiddo", meaning "Mount of Megiddo". "Armageddon" has become a byword for the end of the world.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Megiddo was a site of great importance in the ancient world. It guarded the western branch of a narrow pass on the most important trade route of the ancient Fertile Crescent, linking Egypt with Mesopotamia and Asia Minor and known today as Via Maris. Because of its strategic location, Megiddo was the site of several historical battles. The site was inhabited from approximately 7000 BCE to 586 BCE though the first significant remains date to the Chalcolithic period (4500–3500 BCE).</p><br>
<h3>Early Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Megiddo&#39;s Early Bronze Age I (3500–3100 BCE) temple has been described by its excavators as "the most monumental single edifice so far uncovered in the EB I Levant and ranks among the largest structures of its time in the Near East." The first wall was constructed in the Early Bronze Age II or III period.</p><br>
<p>However, the town experienced a decline in the Early Bronze-Age IV period (2300–2000 BCE), but the city was somewhat revived around 2000 BCE.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Following massive construction, the town reached its largest size in the Middle Bronze Age, at 10–12 hectares.</p><br>
<h3>Late Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Though the city was subjugated by Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 BCE), it still prospered, and a massive and incredibly elaborate palace was constructed in the Late Bronze Age.</p><br>
<h3>Iron Age</h3><br>
<p>The city was destroyed around 1150 BCE, and the area was resettled by what some scholars have identified as early Israelites, before being replaced with an unwalled Philistine town. When the Israelites captured it, though, it became an important city, before being destroyed, possibly by Aramaean raiders, and rebuilt, this time as an administrative center for Tiglath-Pileser III&#39;s occupation of Samaria. However, its importance soon dwindled, and it was finally abandoned around 586 BCE. Since that time it has remained uninhabited, preserving ruins pre-dating 586 BCE without settlements ever disturbing them. Instead, the town of al-Lajjun (not to be confused with the al-Lajjun archaeological site in Jordan) was built up near to the site, but without inhabiting or disturbing its remains.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Israel</h3><br>
<p>Kibbutz Megiddo is nearby, less than 1 km to the south. Today, Megiddo Junction is on the main road connecting the center of Israel with lower Galilee and the north. It lies at the northern entrance to Wadi Ara, an important mountain pass connecting the Jezreel Valley with Israel&#39;s coastal plain.</p><br>
<p>In 1964, during Pope Paul VI&#39;s visit to the Holy Land, Megiddo was the site where he met with Israeli dignitaries, including Israeli President Zalman Shazar and Prime Minister Levi Eshkol.</p><br>
<h2>Battles</h2><br>
<p>Famous battles include:</p><br>
<p>Battle of Megiddo (15th century BCE): fought between the armies of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition led by the rulers of Megiddo and Kadesh.</p><br>
<p>Battle of Megiddo (609 BCE): fought between Egyptian pharaoh Necho II and the Kingdom of Judah, in which King Josiah fell.</p><br>
<p>Battle of Megiddo (1918): fought during World War I between Allied troops, led by General Edmund Allenby, and the defending Ottoman army.</p><br>
<h2>History of archaeological excavation</h2><br>
<p>Megiddo has been excavated three times and is currently being excavated yet again. The first excavations were carried out between 1903 and 1905 by Gottlieb Schumacher for the German Society for the Study of Palestine. Techniques used were rudimentary by later standards and Schumacher&#39;s field notes and records were destroyed in World War I before being published. After the war, Carl Watzinger published the remaining available data from the dig.</p><br>
<p>In 1925, digging was resumed by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, financed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., continuing until the outbreak of the Second World War. The work was led initially by Clarence S. Fisher, and later by P. L. O. Guy, Robert Lamon, and Gordon Loud. The Oriental Institute intended to completely excavate the whole tel, layer by layer, but money ran out before they could do so. Today excavators limit themselves to a square or a trench on the basis that they must leave something for future archaeologists with better techniques and methods. During these excavations it was discovered that there were around 8 levels of habitation, and many of the uncovered remains are preserved at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem and the Oriental Institute of Chicago.</p><br>
<p>Yigael Yadin conducted excavations in 1960, 1966, 1967, and 1971 for the Hebrew University. The formal results of those digs were published by Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg in Hebrew University&#39;s monograph 2016 Qedem 56.</p><br>
<p>Megiddo has most recently (since 1994) been the subject of biannual excavation campaigns conducted by the Megiddo Expedition of Tel Aviv University, currently co-directed by Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin, with Eric H. Cline of The George Washington University serving as Associate Director (USA), together with a consortium of international universities. One notable feature of the dig is close on-site co-operation between archaeologists and specialist scientists, with detailed chemical analysis being performed at the dig itself using a field infrared spectrometer.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, the Jezreel Valley Regional Project, directed by Matthew J. Adams of Bucknell University in cooperation with the Megiddo Expedition, undertook excavations of the eastern extension of the Early Bronze Age town of Megiddo, at the site known as Tel Megiddo (East).</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological features</h2><br>
<p>A path leads up through a Solomonic gateway overlooking the excavations of the Oriental Institute. A solid circular stone structure has been interpreted as an altar or a high place from the Canaanite period. Further on is a grain pit from the Israelite period for storing provisions in case of siege; the stables, originally thought to date from the time of Solomon but now dated a century and a half later to the time of Ahab; and a water system consisting of a square shaft 35 m deep, the bottom of which opens into a tunnel bored through rock for 100 m to a pool of water.</p><br>
<h3>The Great Temple</h3><br>
<p>Megiddo&#39;s 5,000 year old "Great Temple", dated to the Early Bronze Age I (3500–3100 BCE), has been described by its excavators as "the most monumental single edifice so far uncovered in the EB I Levant and ranks among the largest structures of its time in the Near East." The structure includes an immense, 47.5 by 22 meters sanctuary. The temple is more than ten times larger than the typical temple of that era. The first wall was constructed in the Early Bronze Age II or III period. It was determined that the temple was the site of ritual animal sacrifice. Corridors were used as favissae (deposits of cultic artifacts) to store bones after ritual sacrifice. More than 80% of the animal remains were of young sheep and goats; the rest were cattle.</p><br>
<h3>Jewelry</h3><br>
<p>In 2010, a collection of jewelry pieces was found in a ceramic jug The jewelry dates to around 1100 BCE The collection includes beads made of carnelian stone, a ring and earrings. The jug was subjected to molecular analysis to determine the contents. The collection was probably owned by a wealthy Canaanite family, likely belonging to the ruling elite.</p><br>
<h3>Megiddo ivories</h3><br>
<p>The Megiddo ivories are thin carvings in ivory found at Tel Megiddo, the majority excavated by Gordon Loud. The ivories are on display at the Oriental Institute of Chicago and the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. They were found in the stratum VIIA, or Late Bronze Age layer of the site. Carved from hippopotamus incisors from the Nile, they show Egyptian stylistic influence. An ivory pen case was found inscribed with the cartouche of Ramses III.</p><br>
<h3>Megiddo stables</h3><br>
<p>At Megiddo two stable complexes were excavated from Stratum IVA, one in the north and one in the south. The southern complex contained five structures built around a lime paved courtyard. The buildings themselves were divided into three sections. Two long stone paved aisles were built adjacent to a main corridor paved with lime. The buildings were about twenty-one meters long by eleven meters wide. Separating the main corridor from outside aisles was a series of stone pillars. Holes were bored into many of these pillars so that horses could be tied to them. Also, the remains of stone mangers were found in the buildings. These mangers were placed between the pillars to feed the horses. It is suggested that each side could hold fifteen horses, giving each building an overall capacity of thirty horses. The buildings on the northern side of the city were similar in their construction. However, there was no central courtyard. The capacity of the northern buildings was about three hundred horses altogether. Both complexes could hold from 450–480 horses combined.</p><br>
<p>The buildings were found during excavations between 1927 and 1934. The head excavator originally interpreted the buildings as stables. Since then his conclusions have been challenged by James Pritchard, Dr Adrian Curtis of Manchester University Ze&#39;ev Herzog, and Yohanan Aharoni, who suggest they were storehouses, marketplaces or barracks.</p><br>
<h2>Megiddo church</h2><br>
<p>The Megiddo church is not on the tell of Megiddo, but nearby next to Megiddo Junction inside the precinct of the Megiddo Prison. It was built within the ancient city of Legio and is believed to date to the 3rd century, which would make it one of the oldest churches in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Canal  is a canal originally built for freight and passenger transportation from the River Liffey in Dublin to Longford in Ireland. The canal fell into disrepair in the late 20th century, but much of the canal has since been restored for navigation. The length of the canal to the River Shannon was reopened on 1 October 2010, but the final spur branch of the canal to Longford Town remains closed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1755, Thomas Williams and John Cooley made a survey to find a suitable route for a man-made waterway across north Leinster from Dublin to the Shannon. They originally planned to use a series of rivers and lakes, including the Boyne, Blackwater, Deel, Yellow, Camlin and Inny and Lough Derravaragh. A disgruntled director of the Grand Canal Company sought support to build a canal from Dublin to Tarmonbarry, on the Shannon in North county Longford.</p><br>
<p>Work commenced in 1790 and lasted 27 years before finally reaching the Shannon in 1817, at a total cost of £1,421,954. Building was unexpectedly expensive and the project was riven with problems; in 1794 the Royal Canal Company was declared bankrupt. The Duke of Leinster, a board member, insisted that the new waterway take in his local town of Maynooth. The builders had to deviate from the planned route and necessitated the construction of a deep sinking between Blanchardstown and Clonsilla.</p><br>
<p>The diversion also called for the building of the Ryewater Aqueduct, at Leixlip.</p><br>
<p>The original 1796 fare from Dublin to Kilcock was 1/1, much cheaper than the stagecoach.</p><br>
<p>The canal passes through Maynooth, Kilcock, Enfield, Mullingar and Ballymahon has a spur to Longford. The total length of the main navigation is 145 km, and the system has 46 locks. There is one main feeder (from Lough Owel), which enters the canal at Mullingar.</p><br>
<p>In 200 years it has been maintained by eight successive agencies: the Royal Canal Company, the Commissioners of Inland Navigation, the New Royal Canal Company, Midland Great Western Railway Company, Great Southern Railways, CIÉ, and (from 1986) the Office of Public Works.</p><br>
<p>During the Famine, “the missing 1,490” starving tenants of Denis Mahon in Strokestown House, Roscommon, set out on foot from the estate in May 1847. Major Mahon had offered them the choice of emigration through “assisted passage”, starvation on their blighted potato patch farms or a place in the terrifying local workhouse. These families weakened by starvation walked for days along the tow paths of the Royal Canal to Dublin, where they were put on boats to Liverpool, and from there to Quebec aboard four “coffin ships” – cargo ships, ironically loaded with grain from Ireland, and unsuitable for passengers. It is estimated that half died before reaching Grosse Île in Canada. It was the largest single disposal of inconvenient tenants during the Famine. Major Mahon was shot dead that November, after news had got back to Roscommon about the fate of his former tenants. An annual walk on the canal banks commemorates the events.</p><br>
<p>By the 1830s the canal carried 80,000 tons of freight and 40,000 passengers a year. In 1845 the canal was bought by the Midland Great Western Railway Company. They considered draining the canal and building a new railway along its bed but decided instead to build the railway beside the canal. The two run side by side from Dublin to Mullingar. Competition from the railways gradually eroded the canal&#39;s business and by the 1880s annual tonnage was down to about 30,000 and the passenger traffic had all but disappeared.</p><br>
<p>It had a brief resurgence during World War II, when horses and barges returned to the canal. CIÉ took over the canal in 1944. As rail and road traffic increased, the canal fell into disuse. In 1974 volunteers from the Inland Waterways Association of Ireland formed the Royal Canal Amenity Group to save the canal. By 1990 they had 74 kilometres of canal, from the 12th lock in Blanchardstown to Mullingar, reopen for navigation. In 2000 the canal was taken over by Waterways Ireland, a cross-border body charged with administering Ireland&#39;s inland navigations. On 1 October 2010 the whole length of the canal was formally reopened.</p><br>
<p>In 1843, while walking with his wife along the Royal Canal, Sir William Rowan Hamilton realised the formula for quaternions and carved his initial thoughts into a stone on the Broom Bridge over the canal.</p><br>
<h2>Transport links</h2><br>
<p>The Royal Canal was originally planned to terminate in Dublin at Broadstone, to serve the then fashionable area of residence, as well as King&#39;s Inns and the nearby markets, but it was extended so that now, at the Dublin end, the canal reaches the Liffey through a wide sequence of dock and locks at Spencer Dock, with a final sea lock to manage access to the river and sea.</p><br>
<p>The Dublin – Mullingar railway line was built alongside the canal for much of its length. The meandering route of the canal resulted in many speed-limiting curves on the railway. The canal was bought by the Midland Great Western Railway to provide a route to the West of Ireland, the original plan being to close the canal and build the railway along its bed.</p><br>
<p>The canal travels across one of the major junctions on the M50/N3 in a specially constructed aqueduct.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>Today Waterways Ireland is responsible for the canal, and it was under their stewardship, in association with the Royal Canal Amenity Group, that the Royal Canal was officially reopened from Dublin to the Shannon on 2 October 2010. Access points currently exist near Leixlip and at Maynooth, Enfield, Thomastown, Mullingar, Ballinea Bridge and Ballynacargy.</p><br>
<p>In 2006 a commemoration marker was erected at Piper&#39;s Boreen, Mullingar, to mark the 200 years since the canal reached Mullingar in 1806.</p><br>
<h2>Royal Canal Way</h2><br>
<p>The Royal Canal Way is a 144 km long-distance trail that follows the towpath of the canal from Ashtown, Dublin to Cloondara, County Longford. It is typically completed in three days.</p><br>
<h2>The Auld Triangle</h2><br>
<p>The Royal Canal was immortalised in verse by Brendan Behan in The Auld Triangle. A monument featuring Behan sitting on a bench was erected on the canal bank at Binn&#39;s Bridge in Drumcondra in 2004.</p><br>
<p>The other major canal in Ireland is the Grand Canal from Dublin&#39;s southside through the Midlands to the River Shannon.</p><br>
<h2>Superstition</h2><br>
<p>Royal Canal boatmen believed the 13th lock at Deey Bridge, between Leixlip and Maynooth, was haunted. This tale became the subject of a poem by Arthur Griffith, The Spooks of the Thirteenth Lock, which in turn inspired the name of the band The Spook of the Thirteenth Lock.</p><br>
<p>New Georgia is the largest island of the Western Province of the Solomon Islands. With an area of 2,037 km, it is the 200th largest island in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>New Georgia island is located in the New Georgia Group, an archipelago including most of the other larger islands in the province. About 72 km (45 miles) long, it forms part of the southern boundary of the New Georgia Sound. Kolombangara lies across the Kula Gulf to the west, Vangunu is to the east, and Rendova to the south, across the Blanche Channel.</p><br>
<p>The island is rugged and heavily forested.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The central part of New Georgia is the cradle of Roviana culture. A large complex of Bao megalithic shrines and other structures was developed in the 13th century AD. Later, between the 15th and 17th centuries Roviana people moved over to smaller barrier islands at New Georgia with a hub in Nusa Roviana.</p><br>
<p>Through trade and head hunting expeditions, Nusa Roviana turned into the regional centre of power and trade. In the late 19th century the rule of the last chief of head hunters, Ingova, was overpowered by the British colonial army.</p><br>
<p>The Methodist Mission in New Georgia was established by Rev. John Frances Goldie in 1902. He dominated the mission and gained the loyalty of Solomon Islander members of his church. The relationship with the colonial administrators of the British Solomon Island Protectorate were also fraught with difficulty, at this time due to Goldie’s effective control over the Western Solomon Islands.</p><br>
<p>From 1927 to 1934 Dr Edward Sayers worked at the Methodist mission where he established a hospital at Munda and carried out fieldwork in the treatment of malaria.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>During Pacific War (World War II), the United States&#39; New Georgia Campaign opened with landings on New Georgia and nearby islands on 30 June 1943. New Georgia was secured by American forces on 23 August, after weeks of difficult and bloody jungle fighting, although fighting continued on some nearby islands until October 1943.</p><br>
<p>Munda, the Japanese base on New Georgia Island, was the main objective of the assault on the island. This base was not overrun until 5 August 1943. The Japanese port at Bairoko Harbor, 13 km (eight miles) north of Munda, was not taken until 25 August.</p><br>
<p>Donald Gilbert Kennedy was a Coastwatcher stationed at Seghe (Segi) on New Georgia during the Solomon Islands campaign during the Pacific War.</p><br>
<h2>Languages</h2><br>
<p>The ten languages spoken on the island are from the family of New Georgia languages, a subgroup of the Northwest Solomonic languages within the Oceanic languages, a major group of the Austronesian family.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>The Noguera Pallaresa  is a river in Catalonia, Spain.</p><br>
<p>It is named after the Pallars region.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>Its source is at Era Font d&#39;era Noguereta in the municipality of Naut Aran (Aran Valley) at an elevation of about 2,000 m and barely 100 m from those of the Garonne. While the Garonne flows toward the Atlantic Ocean, the Noguera Pallaresa flows to the Segre, and enters that river from the right just before the reservoir of Camarasa (Noguera): its waters then flow to the Mediterranean. The Noguera Pallaresa is dammed at several points, including Talarn Dam, and the largest reservoirs are La Torassa (between Esterri d&#39;Àneu and La Guingueta d&#39;Àneu in the Pallars Sobirà), Sant Antoni (above Talarn in the Pallars Jussà), Terradets (in the municipality of Àger in the Noguera) and Camarasa (just above the confluence with the Segre).</p><br>
<p>Mount Roraima  is the highest of the Pakaraima chain of tepui plateaus in South America. First described by the English explorer Sir Walter Raleigh during his expedition in 1595, its 12 square miles summit area is bounded on all sides by cliffs rising 400 m. The mountain also serves as the triple border point of Venezuela , Guyana  and Brazil .</p><br>
<p>Mount Roraima lies on the Guiana Shield in the southeastern corner of Venezuelas 30,000 km&sup2; Canaima National Park forming the highest peak of Guyanas Highland Range. The tabletop mountains of the park are considered some of the oldest geological formations on Earth, dating back to some two billion years ago in the Precambrian.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in Guyana and the highest point of the Brazilian state of Roraima lie on the plateau, but Venezuela and Brazil have higher mountains elsewhere. The triple border point is at 5&deg;12&prime;08&Prime;N latitude, 60&deg;44&prime;07&Prime;W longitude, but the mountain&#39;s highest point is Maverick Rock, 2,810 m, at the south end of the plateau and wholly within Venezuela.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Many of the species found on Roraima are unique to the tepui plateaus with two local endemic plants found on Roraima summit. Plants such as pitcher plants (Heliamphora), Campanula (a bellflower), and the rare Rapatea heather are commonly found on the escarpment and summit. It rains almost every day of the year. Almost the entire surface of the summit is bare sandstone, with only a few bushes (Bonnetia roraimœ) and algae present. Low scanty and bristling vegetation is also found in the small, sandy marshes that intersperse the rocky summit. Most of the nutrients that are present in the soil are washed away by torrents that cascade over the edge, forming some of the highest waterfalls in the world.</p><br>
<p>There are multiple examples of unique fauna atop Mount Roraima. Oreophrynella quelchii, commonly called the Roraima Bush Toad, is a diurnal toad usually found on open rock surfaces and shrubland. It is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae and breeds by direct development. The species is currently listed as vulnerable and there is a need for increased education among tourists to make them aware of the importance of not handling these animals in the wild. Close population monitoring is also required, particularly since this species is known only from a single location. The species is protected in Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes in Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Monte Roraima in Brazil.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Since long before the arrival of European explorers, the mountain has held a special significance for the indigenous people of the region, and it is central to many of their myths and legends. The Pemon and Kapon natives of the Gran Sabana see Mount Roraima as the stump of a mighty tree that once held all the fruits and tuberous vegetables in the world. Felled by Makunaima, their mythical trickster, the tree crashed to the ground, unleashing a terrible flood. Roroi in the Pemon language means blue-green and ma means great.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Although the steep sides of the plateau make it difficult to access, it was the first recorded major tepui to be climbed: Sir Everard im Thurn walked up a forested ramp in December 1884 to scale the plateau. This is the same route hikers take today.</p><br>
<p>The only non-technical route to the top is the Paraitepui route from Venezuela; any other approach will involve climbing gear. Mount Roraima has been climbed on a few occasions from the Guyana and Brazil sides, but as the mountain is entirely bordered on both these sides by enormous sheer cliffs that include high overhanging (negative-inclination) stretches, these are extremely difficult and technical rock climbing routes. Such climbs would also require difficult authorizations for entering restricted-access national parks in the respective countries.</p><br>
<p>In Brazil the Monte Roraima National Park lies within the Raposa Serra do Sol Indigenous Territory, and is not open to the public without permission.</p><br>
<p>The 2013 Austrian documentary Jäger des Augenblicks - Ein Abenteuer am Mount Roraima (Moment Hunters - An Adventure on Mount Roraima) shows rock climbers Kurt Albert, Holger Heuber, and Stefan Glowacz climbing to the top of Mount Roraima from the Guyana side. Similarly, in 2010 Brazilian climbers Eliseu Frechou, Fernando Leal and Márcio Bruno opened a new route on the Guyanese side, climbing to the top in 12 days of a very difficult vertical wall climb. They called the new route Guerra de Luz e Trevas (Portuguese for "War of Light and Darkness") and classed it as 6° VIIa A3 J4. A 28-minute Vimeo video called is available documenting their climb (English subtitles, audio in Portuguese).</p><br>
<p>Black Mountain may refer to:</p><br>
<h2>Places</h2><br>
<h3>Australia</h3><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Australian Capital Territory), a mountain in Canberra</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain, New South Wales, a village in Armidale Regional Council, New South Wales</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain, Queensland, a small town in Queensland</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Kalkajaka) National Park, a protected area in Queensland</p><br>
<h3>Canada</h3><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, one of two named summits forming the Cypress Mountain Ski Area in West Vancouver, British Columbia</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, a mountain near Horsefly Lake in the Cariboo region of the Central Interior of British Columbia</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, a summit west of the south end of Shuswap Lake in the Southern Interior of British Columbia</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, a mountain on the west side of Atlin Lake to the north of Atlin, British Columbia in the region of the same name</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, a mountain on the east side of Kelowna in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia</p><br>
<p>* Dark Mountain, formerly known as Black Mountain, in the Cassiar Country of northern British Columbia</p><br>
<p>* Coquihalla Mountain, formerly known as Black Mountain, in the Yale Division Yale Land District of southwestern British Columbia</p><br>
<h3>Pakistan</h3><br>
<p>* Tor Ghar also known as Kala Dhaka, historically known as Black Mountain of Hazara</p><br>
<h3>Slovakia</h3><br>
<p>* Black Mountain, Slovakia, a mountain range in the Slovak Ore Mountains</p><br>
<h3>United Kingdom</h3><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Belfast), a mountain beside Belfast, Northern Ireland</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (hill), a peak in the Black Mountains range, the only peak on the English-Welsh border</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (range), a range of mountains in South Wales, different from the nearby Black_Mountains,_Wales</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain transmitting station the transmitter on top of the mountain beside Belfast, Northern Ireland</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain, County Antrim, a townland in County Antrim, Northern Ireland</p><br>
<h3>United States</h3><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Alaska), a mountain</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Maricopa County, Arizona), a mountain</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Pima County, Arizona), a mountain</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Fresno County, California), a ridge</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Riverside County, California), a mountain</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (San Benito County, California), a summit</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (San Diego County, California), a summit</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (near Los Altos, California), a summit on Monte Bello Ridge in the Santa Cruz Mountains of west Santa Clara County, California, south of Los Altos and west of Cupertino</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain Ranch, San Diego, California, a community in San Diego city&#39;s northeast</p><br>
<p>** Black Mountain Open Space Park, the community&#39;s city park</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (near Los Altos, California), in western Santa Clara County at</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Milpitas, California), in eastern Santa Clara County at</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (near Craig, Colorado), a mountain in Moffatt County</p><br>
<p>* Black Mountain (Park County, Colorado), a mountain in Park County</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Georgia), a mountain in Dawson County</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Kentucky), highest point in the Commonwealth of Kentucky</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain of Maine, a ski area in Rumford, Maine</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Michigan), a large hill in Presque Isle County, Michigan</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Missouri), a summit in Madison County, Missouri</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Nevada), a mountain in southern Nevada</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain Ski Area (New Hampshire), a ski area in Jackson, New Hampshire</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Conservation Area), a protected mountain in Dummerston, Vermont abutting the West River</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Catron County, New Mexico), a mountain</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Washington County, New York), a mountain</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain, North Carolina, a town near Asheville, North Carolina</p><br>
<p>**Black Mountain College (1933–1957), a school founded in 1933 in Black Mountain, North Carolina,</p><br>
<p>**Black Mountain poets, sometimes called projectivist poets, a group of mid-20th-century poets centered on Black Mountain College</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (Oregon), a mountain in the Blue Mountains</p><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (West Virginia)</p><br>
<h2>Entertainment</h2><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>*Black Mountain (band), a Canadian psychedelic-rock band</p><br>
<p>**Black Mountain (album), a 2005 debut rock album by the band</p><br>
<p>*"Black Mountain Side", Jimmy Page guitar solo</p><br>
<p>*Songs from Black Mountain, a 2006 album by the band Live</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>*Black Mountain poets, a group of mid-20th-century American postmodern poets</p><br>
<p>*The Black Mountain, a 1954 Nero Wolfe mystery novel by Rex Stout</p><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>*The Black Mountain (film), a 1994 Chinese film by Zhou Xiaowen</p><br>
<h2>Other</h2><br>
<p>*Black Mountain Monpa (&#39;Olekha), an endangered Tibeto-Burman language of western Bhutan</p><br>
<p>The South Shetland Islands are a group of Antarctic islands, lying about 120 km north of the Antarctic Peninsula, with a total area of 3,687 km&sup2;. By the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, the islands&#39; sovereignty is neither recognized nor disputed by the signatories and they are free for use by any signatory for non-military purposes.</p><br>
<p>The islands have been claimed by the United Kingdom since 1908 and have been part of the British Antarctic Territory since 1962. They are also claimed by the governments of Chile (since 1940, as part of the Antártica Chilena province) and by Argentina (since 1943, as part of Argentine Antarctica, Tierra del Fuego Province).</p><br>
<p>Several countries maintain research stations on the islands. Most of them are situated on King George Island, benefitting from the airfield of the Chilean base Eduardo Frei.</p><br>
<p>There are sixteen research stations to date in different parts of the islands, with Chilean stations being the greatest in number. Research is often a shared duty of nations, with the Chilean-United States Shirreff Base being one example.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The islands were discovered by the British mariner William Smith in 1819. Although it has been postulated that Dutch mariner Dirck Gerritsz in 1599 or Spanish Admiral Gabriel de Castilla in 1603 might have sighted the South Shetlands, or North or South American sealers might have visited the archipelago before Smith, there is insufficient historical evidence to sustain such assertions. Smith’s discovery, by contrast, was well documented and had wider historical implications beyond its geographic significance.</p><br>
<p>Chilean scientists have claimed that Amerinds visited the islands, due to stone artifacts recovered from bottom-sampling operations in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, and Discovery Bay, Greenwich Island; however, the artifacts — two arrowheads — were later found to have been planted. In 1818 Juan Pedro de Aguirre obtained permission from the Buenos Aires authorities to establish a base for sealing on "some of the uninhabited islands near the South Pole".</p><br>
<p>Captain William Smith in the British merchant brig Williams, while sailing to Valparaíso, Chile in 1819 deviated from his route south of Cape Horn, and on 19 February sighted Williams Point, the northeast extremity of Livingston Island. Thus Livingston Island became the first land ever discovered south of the 60th southern latitude. Smith revisited the South Shetlands, landed on King George Island on 16 October 1819, and claimed possession for Britain.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September 1819 whilst trying to go through the Drake Passage. Parts of her presumed wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast of Livingston Island.</p><br>
<p>From December 1819 to January 1820, the islands were surveyed and mapped by Lieutenant Edward Bransfield on board the Williams, which had been chartered by the Royal Navy.</p><br>
<p>On 15 November 1819 the United States agent in Valparaíso, Jeremy Robinson, informed the US Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Smiths discovery and Bransfields forthcoming mission, and suggested dispatching a US Navy ship to explore the islands where "new sources of wealth, power and happiness would be disclosed and science itself be benefited thereby."</p><br>
<p>The discovery of the islands attracted British and American sealers. The first sealing ship to operate in the area was the brig Espirito Santo, chartered by British merchants in Buenos Aires. The ship arrived at Rugged Island off Livingston Island, where its British crew landed on Christmas Day 1819, and claimed the islands for King George III. A narrative of the events was published by the brig&#39;s master, Joseph Herring, in the July 1820 edition of the Imperial Magazine. The Espirito Santo was followed from the Falkland Islands by the American brig Hersilia, commanded by Captain James Sheffield (with second mate Nathaniel Palmer), the first US sealer in the South Shetlands.</p><br>
<p>The first wintering over in Antarctica took place on the South Shetlands, when at the end of the 1820–21 summer season eleven British men from the ship Lord Melville failed to leave King George Island, and survived the winter to be rescued at the beginning of the next season.</p><br>
<p>Having circumnavigated the Antarctic continent, the Russian Antarctic expedition of Fabian von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev arrived at the South Shetlands in January 1821. The Russians surveyed the islands and named them, landing on both King George Island and Elephant Island. While sailing between Deception and Livingston islands, Bellingshausen was visited by Nathaniel Palmer, master of the American brig Hero, who informed him of the activities of dozens of American and British sealing ships in the area.</p><br>
<p>The name "New South Britain" was used briefly, but was soon changed to South Shetland Islands (in reference to the Shetland Islands off the coast of Scotland). The name South Shetland Islands is now established in international usage. Both island groups lie at similar distances from the South Pole and North Pole respectively, but the South Shetlands are much colder (see below).</p><br>
<p>Seal hunting and whaling was conducted on the islands during the 19th and early 20th century. Beginning in 1908, these islands were governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependency, but they have only been occupied by humans since the establishment of a scientific research station in 1944. The archipelago, together with the nearby Antarctic Peninsula and South Georgia Island, is an increasingly popular tourist destination during the southern summer.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>As a group of islands, the South Shetland Islands are located at 62&deg;0&prime;S latitude, 58&deg;0&prime;W longitude. They are within the region 61° 00–63° 37 South, 53° 83–62° 83 West. The islands lie 940 km south of the Falkland Islands, and between 93 km (Deception Island) and 269 km (Clarence Island) northwest and north from the nearest point of the Antarctic continent, Graham Land.</p><br>
<p>The South Shetlands consist of 11 major islands and several minor ones, totalling 3,687 km&sup2; of land area. Between 80 and 90 percent of the land area is permanently glaciated. The highest point on the island chain is Mount Irving on Clarence Island at 2,300 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The South Shetland Islands extend about 450 km from Smith Island and Low Island in the west-southwest to Elephant Island and Clarence Island in the east-northeast.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The islands are the same distance from the equator as the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic, but their proximity to Antarctica means that they have a much colder climate. The sea around the islands is closed by ice from early April to early December and the monthly average temperature is below 0 &deg;C for eight months of the year (April to November).</p><br>
<p>The islands have experienced measurable glacier retreat during recent years, but despite this, they remain more than 80% snow and ice covered throughout the summer.</p><br>
<p>The climate is cloudy and humid all year round and very strong westerly winds blow at all seasons. Some of the sunniest weather is associated with outbreaks of very cold weather from the south in late winter and spring. Mean summer temperatures are only about 1.5 &deg;C and those in winter are about -5 &deg;C. The effect of the ocean tends to keep summer temperatures low and winter temperatures from decreasing as low as they do inland to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Despite the harsh conditions the islands do support vegetation and are part of the Scotia Sea Islands tundra ecoregion, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands and Bouvet Island. All these islands lie in the cold seas below the Antarctic Convergence. These areas support tundra vegetation consisting of mosses, lichens and algae, while seabirds, penguins and seals feed in the surrounding waters.</p><br>
<h3>Diptera</h3><br>
<p>Diptera</p><br>
<p>Chironomidae</p><br>
<p>* Parochlus steinenii</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>From north to south the main and some minor islands of the South Shetlands are:</p><br>
<p>Cornwallis Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Elephant Island (Mordvinova by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Clarence Island (Shishkova by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Rowett Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Gibbs Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Eadie Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>King George Island (the largest, called May 25 island by Argentina, or Vaterloo by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Bridgeman Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Penguin Island (minor - one of several Penguin Islands in the Antarctic region)</p><br>
<p>Nelson Island (Leipzig by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Robert Island (Polotsk by Russia)</p><br>
<p>The Watchkeeper (minor)</p><br>
<p>Table Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Aitcho Islands (minor)</p><br>
<p>Greenwich Island (Berezina by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Half Moon Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Desolation Island (minor)</p><br>
<p>Livingston Island (second largest, Smolensk by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Rugged Island (minor - one of several in the Antarctic region)</p><br>
<p>Snow Island (one of several in the Antarctic region; Maly Yaroslavets by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Smith Island (Borodino by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Deception Island (Teylya by Russia)</p><br>
<p>Low Island</p><br>
<p>Seal Islands (minor)</p><br>
<p>(The Russian names above are historical, and no longer the official Russian names of the relevant islands. See the end of the article for a complete list of minor islands.)</p><br>
<h2>Research stations</h2><br>
<p>Several nations maintain research stations on the Islands:</p><br>
<p>– Cámara (since 1953, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Carlini (since 1953, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Base Decepción (since 1948, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– St. Kliment Ohridski (since 1988, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station (since 1984, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Presidente Eduardo Frei Base (since 1969, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Profesor Julio Escudero Base (since 1994, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Captain Arturo Prat Base (since 1947, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>Chile/US – Shirreff Base (since 1990, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Chang Cheng / Great Wall (since 1985, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Pedro Vicente Maldonado Base (since 1990, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Juan Carlos I Antarctic Base (since 1988, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Gabriel de Castilla Base (since 1989, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– King Sejong Station (since 1988, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Machu Picchu Research Station (since 1989, Summer only)</p><br>
<p>– Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station (since 1977, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Bellingshausen Station (since 1968, Year-round)</p><br>
<p>– Artigas Base (since 1984, Year-round)</p><br>
<h2>Field camps</h2><br>
<p>– Camp Livingston</p><br>
<p>– Camp Academia</p><br>
<p>– Camp Byers</p><br>
<p>Shiloh  was an ancient city in Samaria mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. It has been positively identified with modern Khirbet Seilun, a tell or archaeological mound, dubbed in Modern Hebrew Tel Shiloh. It is located to the west of the modern town of Shilo in the West Bank, south of ancient Lebonah and 10 mi north of Beth El.</p><br>
<p>Shiloh was the major Israelite worship centre before the first Temple was built in Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The meaning of the word "Shiloh" is unclear. Sometimes, it is translated as a Messianic title that means He Whose It Is or as Pacific, Pacificator or Tranquility that refers to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Regardless, the name of Shiloh the town is derived from (shala) and may be translated as Tranquility Town (or Fair Haven or Pleasantville).</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Mentioned in the time of the Book of Joshua, Book of Psalms and Judges, Shiloh is situated north of Bethel, east of the Bethel–Shechem highway, and south of Lebonah in the hill-country of Ephraim (Judg. 21:19). Shiloh was identified unambiguously with Khirbet Seilun (Tel Shiloh) by American philologist E. Robinson in 1838. The location had been established long before by the Roman writer Eusebius, and by Nestorius ha-Parhi.</p><br>
<h2>Bronze Age</h2><br>
<p>Long before the advent of the Israelites, Shiloh was a walled city with a religious shrine or sanctuary during Middle and Late Bronze Age Canaan.</p><br>
<h2>Biblical narrative</h2><br>
<p>When the Israelites arrived in the land, they set up there the ancient wilderness tent shrine (the Tent of Meeting: Heb. Ohel-Moed). There Joshua and Eleazar divided the land among the tribes who had not yet received their allocation and dealt with the allocation of cities to the Levites. Subsequently, Shiloh became one of the leading religious shrines in ancient Israel, a status it held until shortly before Davids elevation of Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The tabernacle had been built under Moses direction from God (Exodus 26) to house the Ark of the Covenant, also built under Moses direction from God (Exodus 25). According to Talmudic sources, the tent sanctuary remained at Shiloh for 369 years until the Ark of the Covenant was taken into the battle camp at Eben-Ezer (1 Samuel 4:3–5) and captured by the Philistines at Aphek (probably Antipatris). At some point during its long stay at Shiloh, the portable tent seems to have been enclosed within a compound — a Greek "temenos". It was at Shiloh that Eli and Samuel ministered and Shiloh was the site of a physical structure that had "doors". At some point, the Tent of Meeting was moved to Gibeon, which became an Israelite holy site under David and Solomon.</p><br>
<p>Shiloh was one of the main centers of Israelite worship during the pre-monarchic period, by virtue of the presence there of the Tent Shrine and Ark of the Covenant. The people made pilgrimages there for major feasts and sacrifices, and Judges 21 records the place as the site of an annual dance of maidens among the vineyards.</p><br>
<p>According to, the sanctuary at Shiloh was administered by the Aaronite high priest Eli and his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas. According to this account, the young Samuel was dedicated by his mother Hannah there, to be raised at the shrine by the high priest, and his own prophetic ministry is presented as having begun there. Hophni and Phinehas are noted as malicious in their dealings with those who came to the shrine to offer sacrifices. It was under Eli and his sons that the Ark was lost to Israel in a battle with the Philistines at Aphek. The great biblical historian and archaeologist, W.F. Albright, hypothesized that the Philistines also destroyed Shiloh at this time; this conclusion is disputed but supported by traditional commentary. The place may have been destroyed later as well, and the biblical text records no such claimed destruction. Certainly, the shadowy figure of Ahijah the Shilonite, who instigated the revolt of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, against David&#39;s grandson Rehoboam (I Kings 11, 14), came from there, and he bore, interestingly, the same name as the Aaronite priest that consulted the Ark for Saul in I Samuel 14:3. Schley has claimed that the capture of the Ark and the death of Saul occurred in the same battle and that the later Davidic editors redacted the current texts to make it appear as if Saul had ruled without either Tent Shrine or Ark, and thus without sacral legitimacy. However, this claim has not been proven either.</p><br>
<p>What is certain is that during the prophetic ministry of Jeremiah (7:12-15; 26:5-9) over three hundred years later, Shiloh had been reduced to ruins. Jeremiah used the example of Shiloh to warn the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem what Yahweh Elohim will do to the "place where I caused my name to dwell," warning them that their holy city, Jerusalem, like Shiloh, could fall under divine judgment.</p><br>
<h3>Ambiguous use of "Shiloh" in Hebrew Bible</h3><br>
<p>Shiloh is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 49:10 as part of the benediction given by Jacob to his son Judah. It could be a figure, perhaps the, or a place, as mentioned later and also in. A resident of Shiloh was the prophet Achiyah mentioned in.</p><br>
<h2>Christian period</h2><br>
<p>St. Jerome, in his letter to Paula and Eustochius, dated about 392–393, writes: "With Christ at our side we shall pass through Shiloh and Bethel " (Ep.46,13, PL 22, 492). The official church of Jerusalem did not schedule an annual pilgrimage to Shiloh, unlike Bethel. On the contrary, Samuel&#39;s feast was held on August 20 in the village of Masephta (Mizpah). Even the pilgrims seemingly did not visit Shiloh, for the only one that mentions its name—the sixth-century pilgrim Theodosius (ch. 4, CCSL 175, 116)—wrongly locates it midway between Jerusalem and Emmaus. The mistaken identification lasted for centuries, as appears, for example, on the Florentine map of 1300, which places Shiloh at Nebi Samwil, where the Tomb of Samuel is found. The mosaic map of Madaba wrongly locates Shiloh east of Shechem, omitting depiction of the church.</p><br>
<p>Messianic Christians became attached to Shiloh as a result of the verse (Genesis 49:10)—"The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh comes, and unto him shall the gathering of the people be." Shiloh is believed to refer to Jesus by some Christians. Alternative translations have led others, including some Christians, to different conclusions.</p><br>
<h2>Muslim period</h2><br>
<p>In 638 the Muslims conquered the area of Palestine. Muslim pilgrims to Shiloh mention a mosque called es-Sekineh where the memory of Jacobs and Josephs deeds was revered. The earliest source is el-Harawi, who visited the country in 1173 when it was occupied by the Crusaders and wrote: "Seilun is the village of the mosque es-Sekineh where the stone of the Table is found". Yaqut (1225) and el-Quarwini (1308, Marmardji, 94–95), write similarly.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations have shown that the place was already settled from about 1750 BCE (Middle Bronze II or MB II, otherwise known as MB IIB according to the Albright school); however, it is not mentioned in any pre-biblical source. A tell and many impressive remains have been unearthed from the Caananite and Israelite eras, with habitation lasting until the 8th century BCE. During the following 12 centuries Shiloh is solely noted as a station on sojourners&#39; routes, usually having only its religious-historical significance to offer. Archaeological excavations have revealed remains from the Roman and Persian as well as Early and Late Muslim periods. An impressive glacis has been located and pottery, animal remains, weapons and other objects have been recovered.</p><br>
<p>Soundings were first made in 1922 by Aage Schmidt. A Danish team led by Hans Kjær (overseen by W.F. Albright) excavated for three seasons between the years 1926-32. A probe was done by Sven Holm-Nielson and Marie-Louise Buhl in 1963. An extensive excavation was done by Israel Finkelstein during the years 1981-84.</p><br>
<p>Finkelstein&#39;s work established eight strata, ranging from Middle Bronze II-Byzantine. A massive wall is attributed to the Middle Bronze III (MB IIC) stage, preserved at a height of 24 ft and width up to 18 ft, with an extensive glacis (with a supporting wall). The Iron I (Israelite) remains yielded a pillared two-storey public building near the top of the tell, the earliest attributed to Israelites. Collared rim storage jars and some cultic items were found in these buildings, pointing to usage as part of a cultic complex. More than 20 silos were uncovered from this era, included one with carbonized wheat. The destruction layer evident throughout the tell may have occurred in the wake of the Philistine victory at Eben-Ezer.</p><br>
<p>One of the more intriguing finds was that of a heap of pottery outside the city wall before the advent of the Israelite culture (c. 1000 BCE). This pile of pottery was the remnant of a number of animal sacrifices, which were tossed over the wall after completion of the ritual and then buried. This find points to a sacral status of Shiloh during the Canaanite period, a status adopted by the Israelites. The top of the tell, where Finkelstein supposes that the tabernacle would have been placed, is now exposed bedrock, offering no clues concerning Israelite worship (aside from the adjacent storage complex).</p><br>
<p>According to radiocarbon dating by Finkelstein, the site was abandoned around 1050 BCE, and then sparsely repopulated during the Iron II period. Jeremiah&#39;s admonition, "Go now to my place that was in Shiloh", in the course of his temple sermon would have occurred during this era (Jeremiah 7:12). More substantive villages emerged in Roman and Byzantine periods.</p><br>
<p>Excavations from 2006 to 2007, carried out adjacent to and just south of Tel Shiloh, exposed elaborate mosaic floors as well as several Greek inscriptions, one explicitly referring to the site as the "village of Shiloh". During August–September 2006 archaeological excavations were carried out adjacent to the tell of Shiloh. A team led by the Archaeological Staff Officer for Judea and Samaria in Israel&#39;s Civilian Administration Antiquities Unit, performing a clean-up operation at Shiloh this summer, a belated continuation to a previous 1998 dig, discovered the mosaic floor of a large Byzantine church which was probably constructed between 380 and 420 AD.</p><br>
<p>Three Byzantine basilicas have now been uncovered. The length of one, excavated by Hans Klær in the late 1920s, is 40 m. The width, also measured externally, is 14.10 m, but a 6.40 m wide room adjoins the building on the south side. This church had three naves, and 12 bases and two beautiful Corinthian capitals 62 cm high and 72 - wide are preserved. Their appearance recalls the well-known fourth-century style, with separate leaves revealing the ribbing of the back leaves, and a smooth leaf under the corner.</p><br>
<p>A structure discovered in 2006 lies under a Muslim free-standing structure known as Weli Yetaim. It seems to have suffered problems of water drainage in its western section despite the installation of run-off pipes and troughs. It appears that the solution was to raise the level of the church and the laying of a new mosaic floor. It was the older, original floor at the lower level that was revealed during the summer of 2006. The mosaic contains geometric designs, a cross, flora representations and three inscriptions, one, a dedication of a bench, the second, a salute to the residents of "Siloun" (as set in mosaic in Greek script: "CIλOYN") and the third, a general wish for good tidings. Another discovery of an addition to one of the basilicas occurred in 2013.</p><br>
<p>Gibeon  was a Canaanite city north of Jerusalem. According to and, the pre-conquest inhabitants of Gibeon, the Gibeonites, were Hivites; according to they were Amorites.</p><br>
<p>The remains of Gibeon are located on the south edge of the Palestinian village of Al Jib.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The earliest known mention of Gibeon in an extra-Biblical source is in a list of cities on the wall of the Amum temple at Karnak, celebrating the invasion of Israel by Egyptian Pharaoh Shoshenq I (945-924 BCE).</p><br>
<p>The 10th-century lexicographer, David ben Abraham al-Fasi, identified al-Jib with the ancient city, Gibeon, which view was corroborated also by the Hebrew Lexicon compiled by Wilhelm Gesenius and Frants Buhl ("now al-Ǧīb").</p><br>
<p>However, the first scientific identification of al-Jib with the ancient Canaanite city of Gibeon was made by Edward Robinson in 1838. The remains of Gibeon were excavated in six expeditions from 1956 to 1962, led by the University of Pennsylvania archaeologist James B. Pritchard.</p><br>
<p>Gibeon was founded in the Early Bronze Age, for the excavators discovered 14 EB storage jars beneath the foundations of the Iron Age wall. Other EB remains were discovered at the top of the tel but the stratigraphy had been destroyed by British gunfire during the First World War. It is probable that there was a defensive wall, but this has not yet been found. Tombs cut into the rock on the east site of the hill contained EB jars and bowls, formed first by hand and then finished on a slow wheel. The Early Bronze city was destroyed by fire, but no date has been determined for this destruction.</p><br>
<p>The Middle Bronze Age is known from shaft tombs on the west of the city: 26 MBI tombs have been found but the crudeness of the pottery they contain indicate that the people may have been nomads camping on an unfortified site. The remains are similar to those found elsewhere at Jericho, Lachish and Megiddo. In MBII, however, a substantial city with finely made pottery was found. 29 MBII tombs have been found, apparently containing multiple burials (as opposed to the single burials of the MBI tombs).</p><br>
<p>Only seven tombs are known from the Late Bronze period, but they nevertheless point to a degree of sophistication, as they contained imported Cypriote ware and local potters attempted to copy Mycenaean and Cypriote pottery. It would appear that some, at least, of these tombs had been cut during earlier periods and were being reused.</p><br>
<p>During the early Iron Age, a massive wall was constructed around the crown of the hill and a huge pool was cut in the living rock just inside the wall. It is 11.8m in diameter and 10.8m deep, with a spiral staircase of 79 steps cut into the walls of the pool, continuing downwards into a tunnel that provides access to a water chamber 24m below the level of the city. It is possible, but cannot be proven, that this structure is the "pool of Gibeon" of 2 Samuel 2:13. Later in the Iron Age, another tunnel of 93 steps was constructed to a better water source below the city starting from a point near the pool. A second access point to this source from the base of the hill is still in use today. This was apparently the city&#39;s period of greatest prosperity.</p><br>
<p>In the 8th and 7th century BCE there was a considerable wine industry there; cellars with room for 95,000 liters of wine have been found. Impressive among these finds are sixty-three wine cellars from the 8th to 7th century BC. Hebrew inscriptions of גבען (GBʻN) on the handles of wine storage jars, most of which were excavated from a large pool matching the biblical description, made the identification of Gibeon secure and a landmark product of biblical archaeology. Pritchard published articles on their production of wine, the Hebrew inscriptions, the rock-cut wine cellars, and the well engineered water conduits that supplied the city water.</p><br>
<p>From the 6th to the beginning of the 1st century BCE, there is scant evidence of occupation. During the Roman period there was considerable building, including stepped baths and water conduits.</p><br>
<p>Gibeon was possibly a dependency of Jerusalem, and was probably not fortified at the time.</p><br>
<p>The identification of the ancient Canaanite city of Gibeon with modern al-Jib, conjectured since the 17th century, was proved by Hebrew inscriptions unearthed in 1956.</p><br>
<p>In a 2017 paper, Colin Humphreys and Graeme Waddington suggested that the Biblical story of the Israelites&#39; victory over Gibeon may be identified with an annular eclipse which occurred on 30 October 1207 BC.</p><br>
<h2>Biblical account</h2><br>
<h3>Canaanite Gibeon</h3><br>
<p>After the destruction of Jericho and Ai, the people of Gibeon (Hivites) sent ambassadors to trick Joshua and the Israelites into making a treaty with them. According to the Bible, the Israelites were commanded to destroy all inhabitants of Canaan. The Gibeonites presented themselves as ambassadors from a distant, powerful land. Without consulting God (Joshua 9:14), Israel entered into a covenant or peace treaty with the Gibeonites. The Israelites soon found out that the Gibeonites were actually their neighbours, living within three days walk of them (Joshua 9:17) and Joshua then realised that he had been deceived; however, he kept the letter of his covenant with the Gibeonites to let them live in exchange for their servitude, deciding to have them assigned as woodcutters and water-carriers and condemning (cursing) them to work forever in these trades. Theologian John Gill suggests that this curse was a particular example of the curse which Noah inflicted on all of Canaan:</p><br>
<p>In retaliation for allying with the Israelites, the city was later besieged by a coalition of five other Amorite kings led by Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, along with Hoham of Hebron, Piram of Jarmuth, Japhia of Lachish, and Debir of Eglon. The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua, who led the subsequent victory over the Amorites amid miraculous circumstances, including deadly hailstones and the suspension of the movement of the sun and moon until the Amorites were completely defeated.</p><br>
<h3>As an Israelite city</h3><br>
<p>Gibeon was located in the tribal territory of Benjamin, and it was given as a Levitical city. The city is also the place where God made the sun stand still during the Israelites&#39; war with the Amorites. In the first Book of Chronicles, Jeiel is mentioned as the "father of Gibeon" and is an ancestor of King Saul.</p><br>
<p>The fight between the soldiers of Joab and those of Abner took place beside the Pool of Gibeon (2 Samuel 2:12). It was in this area that David conquered the Philistines ( and ).</p><br>
<p>At some point after David became king of the United Monarchy, a three-year drought led him to ask God what was wrong. God indicated his anger at Saul, "in his zeal for the children of Israel and Judah", massacring the Gibeonites with whom Israel had made a covenant in the Lords name. This event is not itself recorded in the biblical narrative, although Gill refers to a Jewish tradition linking this slaughter to the slaughter of the priests at Nob (1 Samuel 22:6-19). David asked the Gibeonites what he could offer to make amends. In retribution, they asked for seven of Sauls male descendants to be given to them to kill, seven signalling the sign of completion. David handed over Armoni and Mephibosheth, two of the sons of Saul and the five sons of Merab (Sauls daughter) to the Gibeonites, who hanged them. He saved Jonathans son, also called Mephibosheth, from this peril because of his covenant with Jonathan.</p><br>
<p>Amasa was also killed here. There was a "great high place" in Gibeon where Solomon offered one thousand burnt offerings (1 Kings 3:4). On this occasion God appeared to him in a dream (1 Kings 3:5) and granted him wisdom (1 Kings 3: 12). Hananiah came from this city . After the exile of the Israelites to Babylon, Gibeon belonged to Judea. For some period of time, the Tabernacle of the LORD was set up here at the high place.</p><br>
<p>In the Book of Joshua, ancient Jib or Gibeon is described as "a large city, like one of the royal cities", and as being the place where Joshua made the sun stand still (Joshua 10:12). The flat and fertile land with many springs which surrounds it gave rise to a flourishing economy, attested to in the large number of ancient jars and wine cellars discovered there. The jars could hold 45 liters of wine each and 66 wine cellars two meters deep and dug out of rock have been unearthed in Jib.</p><br>
<h2>In Jewish law</h2><br>
<p>In Rabbinic Judaism, the alleged descendants of the Gibeonites, known as Natinim, are treated differently from ordinary Jews. They may not, for example, marry a Jew by birth. However, a Natin may marry Mamzerim and Gerim.</p><br>
<p>indicates that Saul pursued the Gibeonites and sought to kill them off "in his zeal for the children of Israel and Judah".</p><br>
<p>Much later, after the death of Absalom and king Davids restoration to his throne, Israel was visited by a grievous famine, which was believed to be as a result of King Sauls treatment of the Gibeonites.</p><br>
<p>San Jacinto Peak  is the highest peak of the San Jacinto Mountains, and of Riverside County, California. It lies within Mount San Jacinto State Park. Naturalist John Muir wrote of San Jacinto Peak, "The view from San Jacinto is the most sublime spectacle to be found anywhere on this earth!"</p><br>
<p>San Jacinto Peak is one of the most topographically prominent peaks in the United States. It is ranked sixth among peaks in the 48 contiguous states. According to John W. Robinson and Bruce D. Risher, authors of The San Jacintos, "No Southern California hiker worth his salt would miss climbing San Jack at least once."</p><br>
<p>Known for its spectacular north escarpment, the peak rises 10,000 ft above San Gorgonio Pass. It plays host to the famous Cactus to Clouds Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>To the east, the peak towers over the city of Palm Springs (elevation 479 ft; 146 m); to the west, it borders the mountain community of Idyllwild (elevation 5,413 ft; 1,650 m). The peak is also frequently called Mount San Jacinto. The steep escarpment of its north face, above Snow Creek, climbs over 10,000 ft in 7 mi. This is one of the largest gains in elevation over such a small horizontal distance in the contiguous United States.</p><br>
<p>From the peak, San Gorgonio Mountain can be seen across the San Gorgonio Pass. Also easily visible below is the Coachella Valley and the Salton Sea. In addition, much of the Inland Empire, including Ontario to the west, can be viewed on a clear day.</p><br>
<p>Mount San Jacinto is one of the "Four Saints," a name occasionally used to describe the high points of the four mountains over 10,000 feet named for Catholic saints in Southern California: San Jacinto Peak, Mount San Gorgonio (high point of the San Bernardino Mountains), San Bernardino Peak, and Mount San Antonio (high point of the San Gabriel Mountains).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>To the Cahuilla Indians, the peak was known as I a kitch (or Aya Kaich), meaning "smooth cliffs." It was the home of Dakush, the meteor and legendary founder of the Cahuilla.</p><br>
<p>In 1878, a Wheeler Survey topographical party led by rancher Charles Thomas of Garner Valley climbed the peak. The Wheeler Survey gave the mountain the name "San Jacinto Peak" (rather than "Mt. San Jacinto" or "San Jacinto Mountain.")</p><br>
<p>The earliest recorded ascent of the peak was made in September, 1874 by "F. of Riverside," according to a description of his ascent in the San Diego Union. The first successful ascent of the difficult northeast escarpment was made in 1931 by Floyd Vernoy and Stewart White of Riverside.</p><br>
<p>The peak is flanked by Jean Peak 10,670 ft and Marion Mountain (10,362 feet, 3158 meters). These peaks were named in 1897 by USGS topographer Edmund Taylor Perkins, Jr. Perkins named Jean Peak for his sweetheart and future bride, Jean Waters of Plumas County, whom he married in 1903. He named Marion Mountain after Marion Kelly, his girlfriend, a teacher for the Indian Bureau at the Morongo Valley Reservation. According to a local legend, Perkins spent the summer of 1897 deciding which woman to marry while he conducted his topographical survey of San Jacinto Peak and its environs.</p><br>
<p>Nearby Cornell Peak is named for Cornell University, the alma mater of geologist Robert T. Hill. Perkins and Hill were camping in Round Valley when Hill remarked that the peak looked like the campanile tower at Cornell. Perkins later named the peak Cornell Peak.</p><br>
<p>In 1931 and 1932, the San Jacinto Mountain Chamber of Commerce sponsored a Labor Day footrace from Idyllwild to San Jacinto Peak and back, a distance of 18 miles and 5,300 feet. The 1931 race was won by Tom Humphreys, a Hopi, in 3:36:30. Humphreys won the race again in 1932 with a time of 3:12. Near the summit of San Jacinto peak is a stone hut that was built in 1935 by the Civilian Conservation Corps under the direction of Serbo-Croatian immigrant Alfred Zarubicka, a stonemason known in Idyllwild as "Zubi."</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<p>San Jacinto Peak is easily accessible, as many trails penetrate the Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument. The most popular route starts with a ride on the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway from Valley Station at 2,643 ft near Palm Springs up to Mountain Station at 8,516 ft. From there, one can easily climb the mountain face via trails.</p><br>
<p>Another route is to hike the Marion Mountain Trail from near the mountain town of Idyllwild.</p><br>
<p>The Cactus to Clouds Trail involves an arduous climb of approximately 10,700 ft from the desert floor in Palm Springs to the summit at 10,834 ft.</p><br>
<p>This trail has no water sources until 8,500 ft, so early starts are advised to avoid the temperatures which often soar above 100 &deg;F.</p><br>
<p>The Lim bay and valley is a peculiar geographic feature found near Rovinj and Vrsar on the western coast of Istria, south of Poreč, Croatia. The name comes from the Latin limes for "limit", referring to the landform&#39;s position at the border of two Roman provinces: Dalmatia and Italia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Lim valley (Limska draga or Limska dolina) is the 35 km long valley of the river Pazinčica, which transforms into the Lim bay (Limski zaljev), a 10 kilometer long estuary. The Croats sometimes also call it Limski kanal ("Lim Channel"), due to its narrow width. The estuary is sometimes called a fjord, although it is not in fact a fjord but a ria, because it was not carved by a glacier but by the river eroding the ground on its way to the Adriatic Sea, when the sea level was lower.</p><br>
<p>Owing to its geological history, this estuary is one of the most instructive examples of limestone hydrological development. The Lim stream used to flow through the valley but dried up regularly, and was really only present after the heavy rain. The Lim estuary has the appearance of a canyon. The side rises to 150 m, sinking to 20 m when they reach the sea; they are overgrown with maquis and have some special characteristics. The southern bank, facing the north, is covered with deciduous trees (oak and ash), while the north bank, facing the sun, has more evergreen flora. The vegetation has recently suffered a great deal from fires. The estuary is rich in fish, and high quality oysters and mussels. Because of the special conditions of the sea water in the channel (less salt content, a higher concentration of dissolved oxygen and well-researched temperature gradients) sea flora and fauna are particularly well developed.</p><br>
<p>The channel is a natural breeding ground and wintering place for many breeds of fish. For this reason it is a special reserve and is protected by a conservation order. The locals grow some fish and oysters there.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The movie The Long Ships starring Richard Widmark and Sidney Poitier was shot there in 1964.</p><br>
<p>Arthur&#39;s Seat is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh, Scotland which form most of Holyrood Park, described by Robert Louis Stevenson as "a hill for magnitude, a mountain in virtue of its bold design". It is situated just to the east of the city centre, about 1 mi to the east of Edinburgh Castle. The hill rises above the city to a height of 250.5 m, provides excellent panoramic views of the city and beyond, is relatively easy to climb, and is popular for hillwalking. Though it can be climbed from almost any direction, the easiest and simplest ascent is from the east, where a grassy slope rises above Dunsapie Loch. At a spur of the hill, Salisbury Crags has historically been a rock climbing venue with routes of various degrees of difficulty; however due to hazards rock climbing is now restricted to the South Quarry and a free permit is required.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>It is sometimes said that its name is derived from legends pertaining to King Arthur, such as the reference in Y Gododdin. Some support for this may be provided by several other hilltop and mountaintop features in Britain which bear the same or similar names, such as the peak of Ben Arthur (The Cobbler) in the western highlands, sometimes known as Arthurs Seat, and Arthurs Chair on the ridge called Stone Arthur in the Cumbrian lake district. There is no traditional Scottish Gaelic name for Arthurs Seat in Edinburgh, but William Maitland proposed that the name was a corruption of Àrd-na-Said, implying the "Height of Arrows", which over the years became Arthurs Seat (perhaps via "Archers Seat"). Alternatively, John Milnes proposed etymology of Àrd-thir Suidhe meaning "place on high ground" uncomfortably requires the transposition of the name elements.</p><br>
<h2>Natural heritage</h2><br>
<p>Arthurs Seat is the largest of the three parts of the Arthurs Seat Volcano site of special scientific interest (the other parts being Calton Hill and the Castle Rock) which is designated to protect its important geology (see below), grassland habitats and uncommon plant and animal species.</p><br>
<p>Like the rock on which Edinburgh Castle is built, it was formed by an extinct volcano system of Carboniferous age (lava samples have been dated at 341 to 335 million years old), which was eroded by a glacier moving from west to east during the Quaternary (approximately the last two million years), exposing rocky crags to the west and leaving a tail of material swept to the east. This is how the Salisbury Crags formed and became basalt cliffs between Arthurs Seat and the city centre. From some angles, Arthurs Seat resembles a lion couchant. Two of the several extinct vents make up the Lions Head and the Lions Haunch.</p><br>
<p>Arthur&#39;s Seat and the Salisbury Crags adjoining it helped form the ideas of modern geology as it is currently understood. It was in these areas that James Hutton observed that the deposition of the sedimentary and formation of the igneous rocks must have occurred at different ages and in different ways than the thinking of that time said they did. It is possible to see a particular area known as Hutton’s Section in the Salisbury Crags where the magma forced its way through the sedimentary rocks above it to form the dolerite sills that can be seen in the Section.</p><br>
<p>The hill bears a strong resemblance to the Cavehill in Belfast in terms of its geology and proximity to a major urban site.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>A hill fort occupies the summit of Arthur&#39;s Seat and the subsidiary hill, Crow Hill.</p><br>
<p>Hill fort defences are visible round the main massif of Arthurs Seat at Dunsapie Hill and above Samsons Ribs, in the latter cases certainly of prehistoric date. These forts are likely to have been centres of power of the Votadini, who were the subject of the poem Y Gododdin which is thought to have been written about 600 AD in their hillfort on Edinburgh castle crag.</p><br>
<p>Two stony banks on the east side of the hill represent the remains of an Iron Age hill-fort and a series of cultivation terraces are obvious above the road just beyond and best viewed from Duddingston.</p><br>
<p>A track rising along the top of the slope immediately under Salisbury Crags has long been a popular walk, giving a view over the city. It became known as the Radical Road after it was paved in the aftermath of the Radical War of 1820, using the labour of unemployed weavers from the west of Scotland at the suggestion of Walter Scott as a form of work relief.</p><br>
<p>In 1836 five boys hunting for rabbits found a set of 17 miniature coffins containing small wooden figures in a cave on the crags of Arthurs Seat. The purpose has remained a mystery ever since the discovery. A strong contemporary belief was that they were made for witchcraft, though more recently it has been suggested that they might be connected with the murders committed by Burke and Hare in 1828. There were 16 known victims of the serial-killers plus the first person sold "to the doctors", namely a man who had died of natural causes. However, the murder victims were primarily female, while the eight surviving figures are male. Alternatively, the coffins may have represented the 16 bodies sold to the doctors, plus that of the final victim who remained unburied at the time of the duos arrest, but was, as a destitute beggar, very likely dissected in any case. The surviving coffins are now displayed in Edinburgh&#39;s Royal Museum.</p><br>
<p>The prominence of Arthur&#39;s Seat over Edinburgh has attracted various groups and has a particular significance to the history of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, because this is where the nation of Scotland was dedicated in 1840 "for the preaching of the gospel". The apostle, Orson Pratt, arrived in Scotland in early 1850 and climbed the hill to pray to God for more converts.</p><br>
<p>In 1884, alpine mountain guide Emile Rey visited Edinburgh where he climbed Arthur&#39;s Seat, local tradition stating that before doing so he estimated it would take much of the day to reach the top.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Arthur&#39;s Seat is often mentioned as one of the possible locations for Camelot, the legendary castle and court of the Romano-British warrior-chief, King Arthur.</p><br>
<p>Tradition has it that it was at the foot of Arthurs Seat, covered by the forest of Drumselch, that Scotlands 12th-century king David I encountered a stag while out hunting. Having fallen from his horse and about to be gored, he had a vision of a cross appearing between the animal&#39;s antlers, before it inexplicably turned away, leaving him unharmed. David, believing his life had been spared through divine intervention, founded Holyrood Abbey on the spot. The burgh arms of the Canongate display the head of the stag with the cross framed by its antlers.</p><br>
<p>The slopes of the hill facing Holyrood are where young girls in Edinburgh traditionally bathe their faces in the dew on May Day to make themselves more beautiful. The poem Auld Reekie, written by Robert Fergusson in 1773, contains the lines:</p><br>
<p>Terrace Hill, also known as Hubbell Mansion, Benjamin F. Allen House, and Iowa Governor&#39;s Mansion, is the official residence of the Governor of Iowa. Located at 2300 Grand Avenue in Des Moines, Iowa, it is an example of Second Empire architecture. The home measures 18,000 square feet . It sits on a hill overlooking downtown Des Moines, and has a 90-foot  tower that offers a commanding view of the city. The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill was built by Benjamin Franklin Allen, the first millionaire in Iowa, as a home for his family. The architect for this project was William Boyington, a popular Chicago architect. Construction began in 1866, and was finished in 1869. The total cost of the project was $250,000 for the Mansion, the Carriage House, the original furnishings, and about 30 acres (120,000 m²) of land. The house had very modern features for its time, which included hot and cold running water, indoor restrooms, an elevator, and gas lights.</p><br>
<p>When the house was first built, it was on the western edge of Des Moines. However, the city expanded westward. As a result, Terrace Hill is now nearly in the center of the city.</p><br>
<p>From the time Iowa became a state in 1846 until 1947, no official residence was provided for the Governor aside from Governor William L. Harding (1917–1921). In 1947 Iowa purchased an old colonial style home to serve as the residence for the Governor, but by 1970, a new home was needed to serve the needs of the Governor and the state to host visiting dignitaries. At first the Iowa government considered building a new home to serve as the Governor&#39;s residence. The Hubbell family—the owners of Terrace Hill—then offered the home to the state for use as a residence for the Governor and his family. In the fall of 1976, Robert D. Ray became the first Governor to use Terrace Hill as his residence when he moved there with his wife Billie Ray and their three daughters. Governors Terry Branstad (1983–1999, 2011–2017), Tom Vilsack (1999–2007), Chet Culver (2007–2011), and Kim Reynolds (2017–present) have occupied Terrace Hill since then.</p><br>
<h2>The Governor's Home</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill is located at 2300 Grand Avenue, south of Interstate 235. Most visitors stop first at the Carriage House, which is located near the house. Nowadays the building is used as a reception area for most visitors who arrive to tour the home. It also contains permanent and unique changing exhibits - such as a permanent display on the previous owners of the house, the Hubbell family.</p><br>
<h3>The First Floor</h3><br>
<p>The first floor of Terrace Hill is a formal area. The rooms on the first floor were used often for reception of important guests, a tradition which continues.</p><br>
<p>The Vestibule is the entry area to the mansion. Formerly, a servant would greet guests in the Vestibule. They would enter through two sets of doors there that weigh more than 200 pounds (90 kg) each.</p><br>
<p>From there, guests would be taken to the Reception Room. Guests would wait while their presence was announced to the owners, and the host or hostess would greet them in that room.</p><br>
<p>Across the hall is the Drawing Room. At one time it was used for weddings and funerals of the home&#39;s residents. Now the room is used for important events - which include entertaining of foreign dignitaries. The room also features a 7.5 foot (2.3 m) crystal chandelier, and handcarved, laminated, rosewood Belter furniture.</p><br>
<p>The Music Room was previously an entertainment room. Young women would usually play music in this room. The room features a Steinway "Music Room Grand" from 1869 - the same year the house was completed.</p><br>
<p>The Dining Room was used for formal dinners by the previous owners of the home. Today the Dining Room continues to be used for state dinners and receptions. Food served in the dining room is prepared in the kitchen in the basement.</p><br>
<p>The Library was another important room on the first floor. It served originally as the gathering place for the men of the home, and as a storage place for knowledge. The room contains several interesting items, which include F. M. Hubbells leather chair. Because he was just over 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, the chair sits close to the floor to accommodate him. There is also a portable gentlemans "desk", and a partners&#39; table, where two people could work at once.</p><br>
<p>The Sitting Room was the family room during earlier times.</p><br>
<p>All of these rooms are connected by the Main Hall. The ceilings in the hall are 14.5 feet (4.4 m) tall. The Main Hall has carpets by Wilton. There are also a number of interesting portraits.</p><br>
<p>Outside there is a large porch that overlooks the downtown area. It is still used occasionally for parties.</p><br>
<h3>The Second Floor</h3><br>
<p>At the end of the Main Hall on the First Floor, there is a grand staircase that leads up to the Second Floor, with a landing in between.</p><br>
<p>At the landing between the First and Second Floors, there is a stained glass window. The window is often described as "garden in glass" and measures 9 by 13 feet (3 by 4 m). This window colors the landing and part of the staircase with colorful light. The window was added by F. M. Hubbell between 1884 and 1890.</p><br>
<p>After the landing, the staircase divides into two approaches to the Second Floor. Originally the Second Floor served as the bedrooms for most of the family. Now, the formal office of the Governor is located on the Second Floor (their working office is located at the Capitol).</p><br>
<p>The First Lady&#39;s office is also located on the Second Floor. Their office is not normally part of tours because the office is used as a working office for writing speeches, scheduling appearances, and planning special events.</p><br>
<h3>The Third Floor and the Basement</h3><br>
<p>The Governor of Iowa and their family live in the private apartment on the third floor of the house. This floor is not normally open to tours; it opens only for special events, such as fundraisers for restoration or holiday tours.</p><br>
<p>The Basement, like the Third Floor, is also not open to the public. The Governor, their family, and certain staff members have a private entrance in the basement. A kitchen located in the basement prepares meals for special events. Also located in the basement is an Iowa State Patrol security office where an unspecified number of troopers assigned to the premises provide 24/7 protection to the Governor of Iowa and Terrace Hill property.</p><br>
<h2>Tour information</h2><br>
<p>Terrace Hill is open for guided tours from 10:00am to 1:30pm, Tuesday through Saturday, March through December. The tours are available at 10:30 a.m., 11:30 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 1:30 p.m. The tour usually lasts approximately 1 hour. During December the mansion is decorated for Christmas as part of the Holly & Ivy tour, which includes several other mansions in the Des Moines area.</p><br>
<p>Lake Meredith is a reservoir formed by Sanford Dam on the Canadian River at Sanford, Texas. It is about 30 mi northeast of Amarillo, Texas in the Texas Panhandle. It historically was a major source of drinking water for Amarillo and Lubbock, Texas, located about 150 mi to the south along with many other towns in between and nearby. In 2003, the Canadian River Municipal Water Authority announced that it would reduce allocations to its member cities due to an ongoing drought and a continued drop in the water level in the reservoir. As of 2008, the lake continued to hit record lows, and most of the water supplied by CRMWA is now coming from wells in Roberts County. In 2011, water withdrawals from Lake Meredith temporarily ceased and on August 7, 2013 the lake reached its all-time low 26.14 ft. The record high capacity was in April 1973 when the lake was 101.85 ft deep. Lake depth as of October 14, 2017 was 73.12 feet.</p><br>
<p>On June 1, 2008 the remains of a Beechcraft Skipper airplane were found in the receding lake. The plane, reported missing on January 27, 1984, was on a two-hour flight carrying the pilot, Steven Lampe, 25 and Larry Lucas, both of Amarillo, Texas. There had been no eyewitnesses to the crash.</p><br>
<p>Much of the political credit for the establishment of Lake Meredith has gone to the late State Senator Grady Hazlewood of Amarillo.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational activities</h2><br>
<p>From its opening as a National Recreation Area up to the early 2000s, Lake Meredith was an attraction for various recreational activities, including camping, fishing and water sports of all types. Its long narrow profile and numerous coves made power boat sports (water skiing, tubing, wake boarding, etc.) especially popular. Due to the region&#39;s normally windy summer seasons, the coves were popular spots for said water sports due to their natural protection from the winds that often make the open lake waters too choppy for water sports. It also featured camping sites at at least three places around the lake and five beach areas; one only accessible by boat. Popular fishing included sand bass and walleye, though the lake had many other species of fish such as carp.</p><br>
<p>Boat ramps included Sanford Yake, Cedar Canyon, Fritch Fortress, Harbor Bay and Blue West. Sanford Yake and Fritch Fortress are the only two boat ramps currently open as all other ramps are above the water level.</p><br>
<p>The Dentelles de Montmirail are a small chain of mountains in Provence in France, in the département of Vaucluse, located just to the south of the village of Vaison-la-Romaine.</p><br>
<p>They are foothills of the highest peak in Provence, Mont Ventoux, which is situated just to the east. The dramatically jagged shape of their peaks was formed by horizontal strata of Jurassic limestone being folded and forced into a nearly upright position and subsequently eroded into sharp-edged ridges and spikes. The highest peak of the Dentelles is St-Amand, at 734 m (2,400 ft). The range, which is about 8 km wide, offers over 600 trails for walking, rock climbing, and mountain biking. The foot of the Dentelles is surrounded by vineyards of the Rhône Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Their name dentelles, the French word for lace, refers to their shape obtained by erosion, while Montmirail is derived from the Latin mons mirabilis meaning &#39;admirable mountain&#39;.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Located on the territory of the communes of Beaumes-de-Venise, Crestet, Gigondas, La Roque-Alric, Lafare, Le Barroux, Malaucène, Suzette, and Vacqueyras; the Dentelles de Montmirail were an important natural frontier during Antiquity between the tribes of the Memini in the south, and the Voconces in the north.</p><br>
<p>Carrollton is a historic neighborhood of Uptown New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, which includes the Carrollton Historic District, recognized by the. It is the part of Uptown New Orleans farthest upriver while still being easily accessible to the French Quarter. It was historically a separate town, laid out in 1833 and incorporated on March 10, 1845. Carrollton was annexed by New Orleans in 1874 , but it has long retained some elements of distinct identity.</p><br>
<p>Historically the boundaries of the city of Carrollton were the Mississippi River, the downriver border of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, Fig Street, and Lowerline Street. As Lowerline is a small street, some people think of the neighborhood of Carrollton as extending two blocks further to the larger thoroughfare of Broadway. The area on the river side of Claiborne Avenue is sometimes referred to as "Old Carrollton". The incorporation of Carrollton created an apparent anomaly in New Orleans street names; Lowerline is upriver from Upperline Street, which was originally the upriver boundary of another suburb annexed in the 1850s.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Carrollton soon fell under Union control. Historian John D. Winters in his The Civil War in Louisiana (1861), reports that soldiers in Carrollton were heavy whiskey drinkers. A young officer complained that "one-fifth of the regiment keeps drunk all the time." Post commander General John W. Phelps permitted the men to drink because he thought that they "must have whisky or die of country fever." General Benjamin F. Butler, from time to time, issued orders forbidding the public sale of liquor. Butler&#39;s brother, Andrew J. Butler, who held no official capacity, then petitioned his brother to lift the ban. Andrew Butler monopolized the liquor trade and brought cattle into the area from Texas and flour from the North. Winters describes Andrew Butler as "a jolly, fat man who could be as hard as nails where a dollar was concerned. quickly established a monopoly on all groceries, breadstuffs, medicines, and staples brought into. He seized and operated a city bakery that was the only breadmaking establishment allowed in the city. Many in New Orleans considered the Butler brothers "on the make," and persons needing official favors were more likely to succeed if they were on good terms with Andrew Butler.</p><br>
<h2>City overview</h2><br>
<p>The main street is broad Carrollton Avenue, lined with Southern live oaks, with the St. Charles Avenue Streetcar running on the "neutral ground" or central median. The streetcar barn is a block off the avenue in Carrollton, on Willow Street, and the landmark Camellia Grill diner is near the corner of St. Charles and Carrollton Avenues. The neoclassical Carrollton Courthouse building is on Carrollton Avenue near the Mississippi; as of 2011 it houses Audubon Charter Middle School.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood and Avenue are pronounced "kaa-rull-ton" or "kaa-ril-tin" by residents and other uptowners, but many people from the downtown parts of New Orleans (especially those born in the mid-20th century and earlier) pronounce the names as "Karl-ton".</p><br>
<p>Tulane University and Loyola University New Orleans are just a few blocks below Carrollton, and many students, faculty, and staff live in the area and patronize the businesses there.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Carrollton Avenue and Saint Charles Avenue, the neighborhood still retains two "neighborhood main streets" of mixed residential and commercial use. Lower Carrollton centers on Maple Street, with many restaurants, coffee houses, bars, and upscale shops. Upper Carrollton has Oak Street, formerly hosting somewhat larger businesses (such as Woolworth); current businesses there range from restaurants and a hardware store to the best known of the neighborhood&#39;s live music venues, the Maple Leaf Bar.</p><br>
<p>In the northwest section of Carrollton on Claiborne Avenue is Palmer Park, which hosts some moderate sized live music festivals each year. The park has a monument to the Carrolltonians who died in World War I. After Hurricane Katrina, Palmer Park hosted the monthly Mid-City art market, displaced from the more severely damaged Mid-City neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The historically predominantly African-American part of Carrollton along the riverfront has been known since the mid-20th century as "Black Pearl." Mahalia Jackson, the "Queen of Gospel music", was from the Black Pearl section of Carrollton.</p><br>
<p>This part of Carrollton is documented as the location of "Rising Sun Hall" near the riverfront in the late 19th century, which seems to have been a building owned and used for meetings of a Social Aid & Pleasure Club, commonly rented out for dances and functions. This is one possible inspiration for the legendary song "The House of the Rising Sun." Definite connections to gambling or prostitution, if any, are undocumented for either of these buildings, neither of which still exists.</p><br>
<p>Most of Carrollton has long been ethnically mixed, with "free people of color" owning homes in other parts of the town before the Civil War. Many immigrants from Germany, Ireland, and other parts of the United States settled here in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The post of "mayor of Carrollton" survived to the 1980s, although it was an informal one, representing the concerns of the neighborhood to the New Orleans city council. As of 2004, the United States Postal Service continues to deliver mail addressed to "Carrollton, Louisiana." The ZIP Code is 70118.</p><br>
<p>During New Orleans Mardi Gras celebrations, the Krewe of OAK parades through Carrollton. The Phunny Phorty Phellows krewe also holds its "parade" in Carrollton, throwing beads from the streetcar.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>New Orleans Public Schools and the Recovery School District serve Carrollton.</p><br>
<p>Prominent in the area is the Carrollton Courthouse, the former courthouse for the city of Carrollton (located at 719 South Carrollton Avenue). Designed by prominent New Orleans architect Henry Howard, who also designed many other notable buildings around Louisiana including Nottoway Plantation and Madewood Plantation, and completed in 1855, the site served as the courthouse for Carrollton and Jefferson Parish until the town was annexed onto New Orleans in 1874. Since then, the building has housed McDonogh 23 elementary school, Ben Franklin Senior High School, Lusher Elementary School&#39;s 6-8 extension (now Lusher Charter School), and Audubon Charter School. The building has been vacant since 2013.</p><br>
<p>There was a private school named the Carrollton Private School, founded to avoid racial integration in the 1950s. The school campus was located on Willow Street at corner of Monroe Street. Grades 1 thru 8.</p><br>
<p>The New Orleans Public Library operates the Nix Branch Library in Carrollton Riverbend. Robert Morris of the Uptown Messenger said that it was a "popular little" library. As of 2011 there was a "secret gardener" who watered the flowers on the library property.</p><br>
<p>Kielder Water is a large man-made reservoir in Northumberland in North East England. It is the largest artificial lake in the United Kingdom by capacity of water and it is surrounded by Kielder Forest, the biggest man-made woodland in Europe. The scheme was planned in the late 1960s to satisfy an expected rise in demand for water to support a booming UK industrial economy. But the decline of traditional heavy industry, together with more water-efficient industrial processes and better control of water supply leakage, served to undermine the original justification for the reservoir and many came to criticise the government-funded project as a white elephant.</p><br>
<p>Kielder Water is owned by Northumbrian Water, and holds 200 billion litres (44 billion gallons, or 0.2 cubic km), making it the largest artificial reservoir in the UK by capacity (Rutland Water is the largest by surface area). It has a 27.5 mi shoreline, and is 39.7 km (24.6 miles) from the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>After the scheme was approved by Parliament in 1974, work to build the reservoir and the dam at the hamlet of Yarrow in the Kielder Valley began in 1975. The reservoir and dam was designed for Northumbrian Water by consulting engineers Babtie, Shaw and Morton. with Sir Frederick Gibberd and Partners as consulting architect. Earth moving and infrastructure construction was undertaken in a joint venture with AMEC and Balfour Beatty.</p><br>
<p>The design meant the loss of numerous farms and a school. The former permanent way of the Border Counties Railway was also taken away through the development of the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>Work was completed in 1981. Elizabeth II officially opened the project the following year. The valley took a further two years to fill with water completely.</p><br>
<h2>Hydro electric plant</h2><br>
<p>Kielder Water is also the site of England&#39;s largest hydro electric plant. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 26 May 1982 and is owned by Northumbrian Water. In December 2005, RWE Npower Renewables bought the rights to operate the plant and sell the electricity generated by it, with a contract lasting until 2025. Following the takeover, the turbines were refurbished in 2005–2006, which increased the efficiency of the electricity generation. Controls were also updated, meaning that the plant can be operated from Dolgarrog in Wales.</p><br>
<p>The plant generates electricity using dual turbines which produce 6 megawatts (MW) of electricity. This comes from a combination of a 5.5 MW Kaplan turbine, which generates electricity when water release takes place, and a 500 kilowatt (kW) Francis turbine that generates constantly from the compensation flow of water from the reservoir into the North Tyne. This gives the reservoir an average production of 20,000 MWh of electricity per year, a saving of 8,600 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year compared to fossil fuel based methods of generation.</p><br>
<h2>Operations</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir&#39;s main use is to provide compensating discharges into the North Tyne to support abstractions of water further downstream. It also underpins the £167m Kielder Transfer Scheme, where water can be transferred to the Wear and the Tees rivers, to meet shortfalls in those areas. In recent years, Kielder Water has become increasingly important, with underground springs ensuring that it always remains at high levels, regardless of the prevailing climate condition. This means that while the south of England is often forced to implement drought strategies and hosepipe bans, north east England enjoys plentiful water supplies.</p><br>
<p>There are two main visitor centres at Kielder Water—Leaplish waterside park and Tower Knowe visitor centre—and other facilities at Kielder, Falstone and Stannersburn villages. It is also one of the region&#39;s major tourist venues, attracting more than 250,000 visitors a year who come to enjoy the wide range of leisure opportunities on offer.</p><br>
<p>Sagamore Hill was the home of the 26th President of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, from 1885 until his death in 1919. It is located in the Incorporated Village of Cove Neck, New York, near Oyster Bay on the North Shore of Nassau County on Long Island, 25 mi east of Manhattan. It is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site, which includes the Theodore Roosevelt Museum in a later building on the grounds.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although he was a native of New York City, Theodore Roosevelt spent many summers of his youth on extended vacations with his family in the Oyster Bay area. In 1880, by then a young adult of 22, Roosevelt purchased 155 acre of land for $30,000 (equal to about $700,000 today) on Cove Neck, a small peninsula roughly 2 mi northeast of the hamlet of Oyster Bay. In 1881, his uncle James A. Roosevelt had designed his estate home several hundred feet west of the Sagamore Hill property. In 1884 Theodore Roosevelt hired the New York architectural firm Lamb & Rich to design a shingle-style, Queen Anne home for the property. The twenty-two room home was completed by John A. Wood and Son of Lawrence, Long Island in 1886 for $16,975 (equal to $ today), and Roosevelt moved into the house in 1887. Roosevelt originally planned to name the house "Leeholm" after his wife Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt. However, she died in 1884 and Roosevelt remarried in 1886, so he decided to change the name to "Sagamore Hill". Sagamore is the Algonquin word for chieftain, the head of the tribe.</p><br>
<p>In 1905 Roosevelt decided to expand the house, adding the largest room, called the "North Room" (40 by), for $19,000 (equal to $ today). The North Room is furnished with trophies from the former presidents hunts and gifts from foreign dignitaries, alongside pieces of art and books from the Roosevelts collection. The home now has twenty-three rooms, including a water closet with a porcelain tub, a luxury at the time of its construction.</p><br>
<p>The house and its surrounding farmland became the primary residence of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt for the rest of their lives and the birthplace of three of their five children. Sagamore Hill took on its greatest importance when it became known as the "Summer White House" during the seven summers (1902–1908) Roosevelt spent there as President. It played host to numerous visits from foreign dignitaries and peace talks that helped draw an end to the Russo-Japanese war. Roosevelt died at Sagamore Hill on January 6, 1919, and was buried at nearby Youngs Memorial Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>On July 25, 1962, Congress established Sagamore Hill National Historic Site to preserve the house as a unit of the National Park Service. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, Sagamore Hill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. The home is open to the public by guided tour. Almost all the furnishings are original. Also on the site is the Theodore Roosevelt Museum, which chronicles the life and career of the President. The museum is housed in the 1938 house called "Old Orchard", the former residence of Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and his family. Sagamore Hill was closed for about 4 years from 2011-2015 to allow for restoration work to take place.</p><br>
<p>The River Nith  is a river in South West Scotland.</p><br>
<h2>Source, flow and mouth</h2><br>
<p>The Nith rises in the Carsphairn hills of East Ayrshire, more precisely between Prickeny Hill and Enoch Hill, 7 km east of Dalmellington. For the majority of its course it flows in a generally southern direction through Dumfries and Galloway, before spilling into the Solway Firth at Ards point.</p><br>
<p>The territory through which the river flows is called Nithsdale (historically known as "Stranit" from Strath Nid, "valley of the Nith").</p><br>
<h2>Length</h2><br>
<p>For estuaries the principle followed is that the river should be visible at all times. The measurement therefore follows the centre of the river at low tide and the mouth of the river is assumed to be at the coastal high tide mark. In Scotland this does not generally make a significant difference, except for rivers draining into shallow sloping sands of the Irish Sea and Solway Firth, notably the Nith. At low tide, the sea recedes to such an extent that the length of the Nith is extended by 13 km to 113.8 km (70.7 miles), making it Scotland&#39;s seventh longest river.</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>The estuary of the River Nith is an important site for wildfowl, and is protected at an international level as part of the Upper Solway Flats and Marshes Ramsar site and Special Protection Area, and as part of the Solway Firth Special Area of Conservation. At a national level, the area is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and is within the Caerlaverock National Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The Nith Estuary National Scenic Area recognises the scenic value of the area.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Upstream to Downstream:</p><br>
<p>Connel Burn</p><br>
<p>Afton Water</p><br>
<p>Kello Water</p><br>
<p>Crawick Water</p><br>
<p>Euchan Water</p><br>
<p>Mennock Water</p><br>
<p>Carron Water</p><br>
<p>Cample Water</p><br>
<p>Scar Water</p><br>
<p>Shinnel Water</p><br>
<p>Cluden Water</p><br>
<p>Cargen Pow</p><br>
<p>New Abbey Pow</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Carronbridge</p><br>
<p>New Cumnock</p><br>
<p>Kirkconnel</p><br>
<p>Sanquhar</p><br>
<p>Mennock</p><br>
<p>Thornhill</p><br>
<p>Dumfries</p><br>
<p>Glencaple</p><br>
<p>Melk Abbey  is a Benedictine abbey above the town of Melk, Lower Austria, Austria, on a rocky outcrop overlooking the Danube river, adjoining the Wachau valley. The abbey contains the tomb of Saint Coloman of Stockerau and the remains of several members of the House of Babenberg, Austria&#39;s first ruling dynasty.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The abbey was founded in 1089 when Leopold II, Margrave of Austria gave one of his castles to Benedictine monks from Lambach Abbey. A monastic school, the Stiftsgymnasium Melk, was founded in the twelfth century, and the monastic library soon became renowned for its extensive manuscript collection. The monastery&#39;s scriptorium was also a major site for the production of manuscripts. In the fifteenth century the abbey became the centre of the Melk Reform movement which reinvigorated the monastic life of Austria and Southern Germany.</p><br>
<p>Today&#39;s Baroque abbey was built between 1702 and 1736 to designs by Jakob Prandtauer. Particularly noteworthy are the abbey church with frescos by Johann Michael Rottmayr and the library with countless medieval manuscripts, including a famed collection of musical manuscripts and frescos by Paul Troger.</p><br>
<p>Due to its fame and academic stature, Melk managed to escape dissolution under Emperor Joseph II when many other Austrian abbeys were seized and dissolved between 1780 and 1790. The abbey managed to survive other threats to its existence during the Napoleonic Wars, and also in the period following the Anschluss in 1938, when the school and a large part of the abbey were confiscated by the state.</p><br>
<p>The school was returned to the abbey after the Second World War and now caters for nearly 900 pupils of both sexes.</p><br>
<p>Since 1625 the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.</p><br>
<p>In his novel The Name of the Rose, Umberto Eco named one of the protagonists "Adso of Melk" as a tribute to the abbey and its famous library.</p><br>
<p>Among its alumni was the nineteenth-century Austrian dramatist and short-story writer, Friedrich Halm.</p><br>
<p>Melk Abbey is also the metaphorical climax ("a peak in a mountain range of discovery") of Patrick Leigh Fermor&#39;s autobiographical account of his walking tour across pre-WW II Europe in "A Time of Gifts", which includes a description of the abbey at that time.</p><br>
<h2>Euro commemorative coin</h2><br>
<p>Melk Abbey was recently selected as the main motif of a 10 euro collectors&#39; coin: the Austrian Melk Abbey commemorative coin, minted on April 18, 2007. The obverse shows a view up to the façade of the abbey church and its two side wings from a low level. The twin baroque towers and the great dome of the church behind them can be seen. In the lower right corner the coat-of-arms of the Abbey of Melk (the crossed keys of St. Peter) can be seen.</p><br>
<p>Melk Stift Melk 5.JPGMelk Abbey</p><br>
<p>070526 Stift Melk 02.jpgMain entrance</p><br>
<p>070526 Stift Melk 03.jpgPrelate&#39;s courtyard</p><br>
<p>070525 Stift Melk 01.jpgMelk Abbey at night</p><br>
<p>Melk Stift Altstadt.jpgMelk Abbey at night from the old town</p><br>
<p>Melk Abbey aerial view 001.jpgAerial view</p><br>
<p>Melk90.jpgLeopold Altar, painting by Georg Bachman (1650)</p><br>
<p>05 Melk.JPGChoir stalls</p><br>
<p>04Melk.JPGPulpit</p><br>
<p>Stiftskirche Melk Deckenfresken 01.JPGThe Ceiling</p><br>
<p>Melk - Abbey - Library.jpgMelk library</p><br>
<p>070526 Stift Melk 09.jpgStaircase between the library and church</p><br>
<p>Stift Melk church dsc01494.jpgChurch of the Abbey</p><br>
<p>StiftMelkDeckenfresken.jpgFrescoed ceiling of the church</p><br>
<p>StiftMelkKuppel.jpgCupola of the church</p><br>
<p>The Triumph of the Monk by Johann Michael Rottmayr - Melk Abbey Austria.jpgThe Triumph of the Monk, by Johann Michael Rottmayr</p><br>
<p>Melk Abbey.JPGMelk Abbey</p><br>
<p>Stift Melk 004.jpgMelk Abbey</p><br>
<p>Melk18.jpgMargravine Swanhilde&#39;s altar, eleventh century</p><br>
<p>St. Benedicts triumphal ascent to heaven by Johann Michael Rottmayr - Melk Abbey Austria.jpgSt. Benedicts triumphal ascent to Heaven, also by Rottmayr</p><br>
<p>Ceiling_painting_of_the_Marble_Hall_-_Melk_Abbey_-_Austria.jpgPainting on the ceiling of the marble hall</p><br>
<p>Topografia 1672 Vischer Moelckh.jpgMelk Abbey in 1672, before its renovation by Jakob Prandtauer.</p><br>
<p>2007 Austria 10 Euro Melk Abbey front.jpgEuro commemorative coin</p><br>
<p>Glanum  was an oppidum, or fortified town in present day Provence, founded by a Celto-Ligurian people called the Salyes in the 6th century BCE. It became officially a Roman city in 27 BCE and was abandoned in 260 AD. It is located on the flanks of the Alpilles, a range of mountains in the Bouches-du-Rhône département, about 20 km south of the modern city of Avignon, and a kilometre south of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. It is particularly known for two well-preserved Roman monuments of the 1st century B.C., known as les Antiques, a mausoleum and a triumphal arch .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The Celto-Ligurian oppidum</h3><br>
<p>Between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, the Salyens, the largest of the Celto-Ligurian tribes in Provence, built a rampart of stones on the peaks that surrounded the valley of Notre_Dame-de-Laval, and constructed an oppidum, or fortified town, around the spring in the valley, which was known for its healing powers. A shrine was built at the spring to Glanis, a Celtic god. The town grew, and a second wall was built in the 2nd century BC.</p><br>
<p>The town had a strong Celtic identity, shown by the names of the residents (Vrittakos, Eporix, Litumaros); by the names of the local gods (Glanis and his companions, the Glanicae, (similar to the Roman Matres); and the goddesses Rosmerta and Epona); by the statues and pottery; by the customs, such as displaying the severed heads of enemies at the city gate; and by the cooking utensils found in the ruins, which showed that the people of Glanis boiled their food in pots, rather than frying it in pans like other Mediterranean tribes.</p><br>
<p>The people of Glanum were in early contact with the Greek colony of Massalia, present day Marseille, which had been founded in about 600 BC. The contact influenced the architecture and art of Glanum- villas were built in the Hellenic style. But by the 2nd century BC conflicts and wars arose between the Salyens and the Greeks of Marseille, who not having a powerful army, called upon the assistance of their Roman allies. In 125 BC the Salyens were defeated by the army of the Roman consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, and the following year decisively defeated by C. Sextus Calvinus. Many of the old monuments of Glanum were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Due to its commercially useful location on the Via Domitia, and the attraction of its healing spring, the town prospered again. The city produced its own silver coins and built new monuments. The prosperity lasted until 90 BC when the Salyens again rebelled against Rome. The public buildings of Glanum were again destroyed. The rebellion was crushed this time by the Consul Caecilius, and the remains of the main buildings demolished and replaced by more modest structures.</p><br>
<h3>The Roman town</h3><br>
<p>In 49 BC Julius Caesar captured Marseille, and after a period of destructive civil wars, the Romanization of Provence and Glanum began.</p><br>
<p>In 27 BC the Emperor Augustus created the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis, and in this province Glanum was given the title of Oppidum Latinum, which gave residents the civil and political status of citizens of Rome. A triumphal arch was built outside the town between 10 and 25 BC, near the end of the reign of Augustus, (the first such arch to be built in Gaul), as well as an impressive mausoleum of the Julii family, both still standing.</p><br>
<p>In the 1st century BC, under the Romans, the city built a new forum, temples, and a curved stone arch dam, Glanum Dam, the oldest known dam of its kind, and an aqueduct, which supplied water for the towns fountains and public baths.</p><br>
<p>Glanum was not as prosperous as the Roman colonies of Arles, Avignon and Cavaillon, but by the 2nd century AD it was wealthy enough to build impressive shrines to the Emperors, to enlarge the forum, and to have extensive baths and other public buildings clad in marble.</p><br>
<h3>Destruction, rediscovery and excavation</h3><br>
<p>Glanum did not survive the collapse of the Roman Empire. The town was overrun and destroyed by the Alamanni in 260 AD and subsequently abandoned, its inhabitants moving a short distance north into the plain to found a city that eventually became modern day Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.</p><br>
<p>After its abandonment Glanum became a source of stone and other building materials for Saint-Remy. Since the Roman system of drains and sewers was not maintained, the ruins became flooded and covered with mud and sediment. The mausoleum and triumphal arch, together known as "Les Antiques," were famous, and were visited by King Charles IX, who had the surroundings cleaned up and maintained. Some excavations were made around the monuments as early as the 16th and 17th centuries, finding sculptures and coins, and by the Marquis de Lagoy in the Vallons-de-Notre-Dame in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The first systematic excavations began in 1921, directed by the architect of historic monuments, Jules Foremigé. From 1921 until 1941, the archeologist Pierre LeBrun worked on the site, discovering the baths, the basilica, and the residences of the northern part of the town. From 1928 to 1933, Henri Roland (1887–1970) worked on the Iron Age sanctuary, to the south. From 1942 until 1969, Roland took over the work and excavated the area from the forum to the sanctuary. The objects he discovered are on display today at the Hotel de Sade in nearby Saint-Remy. New excavation and exploration work began in 1982, devoted mainly to the preservation of the site, and to exploring beneath sites already discovered for older works.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments of Glanum</h2><br>
<h3>Mausoleum of the Julii</h3><br>
<p>The Mausoleum of the Julii, located across the Via Domitia, to the north of, and just outside the city entrance, dates to about 40 BCE, and is one of the best preserved mausoleums of the Roman era.</p><br>
<p>A dedication is carved on the architrave of the building facing the old Roman road, which reads:</p><br>
<p>SEX · M · L · IVLIEI · C · F · PARENTIBVS · SVEIS</p><br>
<p>Sextius, Marcus and Lucius Julius, sons of Gaius, to their forebears</p><br>
<p>It is believed that the mausoleum was the tomb of the mother and father of the three Julii brothers, and that the father, for military or civil service, received Roman citizenship and the privilege of bearing the name of the Julii, one of the most distinguished families in Rome.</p><br>
<p>The mausoleum is built in three stages. The upper stage, or tholos, is a circular chapel with Corinthian columns. It contains two statues wearing togas, presumably the father and grandfather of the Julii. (The heads of the statues were lost at an earlier date, and replaced in the 18th century). The conical roof is decorated with carved fish scales, traditional for Roman mausoleums. The frieze beneath the conical roof is decorated with a rinceau featuring carvings of acanthus leaves, used in Roman mortuary architecture to represent eternal rebirth.</p><br>
<p>The middle stage, or quadrifons, is an arch with four bays. The archivoltes, or curved bands of decoration on the tops of the arches, also have acanthus leaves. At the top of each arch is the carved head of a gorgon, the traditional protector of Roman tombs.</p><br>
<p>The frieze at the top of the quadrifons is decorated with carvings of tritons, carrying the disk of the sun, and with sea monsters.</p><br>
<p>The lowest part of the mausoleum is decorated with carved garlands of vegetation, theater masks and cupids or putti, and with mythical or legendary scenes.</p><br>
<p>North face – a battle of horsemen, and a winged victory carries a trophy.</p><br>
<p>East face – an infantryman unhorses an Amazon warrior, a warrior takes trophies from a dead enemy, and the figure of Fame recites the story of the battle to a man and woman. The scene may be inspired by the Amazonomachy, the mythical war between the Greeks and the Amazons.</p><br>
<p>West face – a scene from the Iliad and Trojan War, the Greeks and Trojans fighting for the body of Patroclus.</p><br>
<p>South face – Cavaliers hunt for wild boar in a forest. One cavalier is wounded and dying in the arms of a companion. This may represent the legend of the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, conducted by Meleager, with Castor and Pollux shown on horseback.</p><br>
<h3>The Triumphal Arch of Glanum</h3><br>
<p>The triumphal arch stood just outside the northern gate of the city, next to the mausoleum and was the visible symbol of Roman power and authority. It was built near the end of the reign of Augustus Caesar (who died in 14 AD). The upper portion of the arch, including the inscription, are missing.</p><br>
<p>The sculptures decorating the arch illustrated both the civilization of Rome and the dire fate of her enemies.</p><br>
<p>The panel to the right of the entrance shows a female figure seated on a pile of weapons, and a Gaullish prisoner with his hands tied behind him.</p><br>
<p>The panel to the left shows another prisoner in a Gaullish cloak, with a smaller man, wearing his cloak in the Roman style, placing his hand on the shoulder of the prisoner.</p><br>
<p>On the reverse side of the arch are sculptures of two more pairs of Gaullish prisoners.</p><br>
<h2>Glanum's monumental center</h2><br>
<p>Glanum was laid out on a north-south axis through the valley of Notre-Dame-du-Vallon. At the northern end was the residential quarter, with the public baths, and at the southern end was the sacred quarter, with the spring and grotto. In the center was the monumental quarter, the site of the forum and public buildings.</p><br>
<p>The earliest monuments discovered in Glanum were built by the Salyens in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries BC and were strongly influenced by the Hellenic style of the nearby Greek colony of Marseille. They included a large building around a trapezoidal peristyle, or courtyard surrounded by columns; and a sacred well, or dromos, next to a small temple in the Tuscan style.</p><br>
<p>The sacred well, or dromos (late 2nd century BC). The well is three meters in diameter and has a stairway with thirty-seven steps which descended to the water. There is no dedication on the temple, but it probably was connected with the sacred nature of the well. The original buildings were destroyed and the well covered over during the construction of the first Roman forum on the same site during the 1st Century BC. At the end of Antiquity the well was filled with statuary and debris from the late Roman Empire. The well has been uncovered and fragments of the walls of the temple can be seen.</p><br>
<p>The Bouleuterion (2nd -1st centuries BC) was a meeting place for notables, built in the Hellenic style, with an open space with an altar in the center surrounded by stepped rows of seats on three sides. There was a portico with three columns at one end. The northern part of the Bouleuterion was obliterated during Roman times by the construction of the Twin Temples, but the space was preserved and used as a Curia.</p><br>
<p>The Hellenic Fountain. A small circular stone basin from the period of Greek influence, (2nd-1st centuries BC), probably a fountain, stands next to the road. This is one of the oldest fountains discovered in France.</p><br>
<h3>The First Roman Forum</h3><br>
<p>The first Roman forum in Glanum was built around 20 B.C., at about the time that Glanum was given the title of oppidum latinum.</p><br>
<p>The Twin Temples. The main features of the first forum were two Corinthian temples, identical in style but one larger than the other, enclosed on three sides by a peribole, or arcade of columns. Three columns, and a part of the facade, in the style of the early years of the reign of the Emperor Augustus, have been restored/reproduced to give an idea of the building&#39;s impressive form.</p><br>
<p>The Basilica. The first forum had on its northern side a modest basilica with two naves, used as a public hall for transacting business and legal affairs. Only the north corner of the east portico of this building still exists.</p><br>
<p>The Monumental Fountain. A monumental fountain, dating to about 20 BC, was located on the southern end of the forum. It consisted of a rectangular basin and a semi-circular apse with Corinthian columns, which probably sheltered a statue. The fountain was supplied with water by an aqueduct from the nearby dam.</p><br>
<h3>The Second Roman Forum</h3><br>
<p>The second Roman forum, built between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, was the central market, business place, place of justice and site of official religious rituals. A large open space was enclosed on two sides by porticos of columns. On the southern side was a semi-circular excedre, while on the north was the basilica, the large hall that was the palace of justice and seat of government. The basilica was 47 by 24 meters in size, supported by 24 large columns. The facade has disappeared, but the back wall and side walls still exist. Behind the basilica was the curia, where a statue of the Emperor was placed in a niche in the wall. In the center was a square room which served as a tribunal and as the chapel of the cult of the Emperor.</p><br>
<h2>The residential quarter and the public baths</h2><br>
<p>The northern part of Glanum, at the bottom of the sloping site, was the residential quarter: the site of villas and of the extensive public baths. The baths were the center of social life, and helped serve to Romanize the local population.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Baths were built in about 75 BC. Later, during the reign of Lucius Verus (161-169 AD) they were rebuilt and the building clad with marble. Modest in size, they consisted of a pelastre, an open-air exercise area surrounded by an arcade of columns; a hall with cold baths; and two halls heated by a hypocaust, by which hot air was circulated under the rooms through brick channels. One was a hot air sweating room or laconicum, the other a caldarium, or hot bath, including a masonry bathing pool. On the south, next to the pelastre, was a large swimming pool. Water was fed into the pool through the mouth of a stone theatrical mask. The original is now in the nearby museum in St. Remy but a reproduction sits in its original position.</p><br>
<p>Hellenistic residences. The quarter contains the ruins of several villas and residences in the Greek style, pre-dating the Roman city. Between the baths and the forum was a house with a Doric peristyle, and another, called the House of Capricorn, with two surviving sections of mosaic floors, one section featuring a capricorn surrounded by four dolphins.</p><br>
<p>The Market and the Temple of Cybele. Near the residences was a pre-Roman marketplace, surrounded by Doric columns, with four small shops on the west side. In Roman times half of the marketplace was transformed into a small temple to the Bona Dea, a goddess of the oracle, and later to Cybele. In springtime the priestesses of Cybele brought a sacred pine into the sanctuary, symbolizing the god Atys. In the temple there was also an altar dedicated to the priestess Loreia, with a stone carving of the ears of the goddess, that she might hear prayers.</p><br>
<p>The House of the Antae was built in the style of Greek houses around the Mediterranean. A two storey house with three wings and a portico of Tuscan columns, built around a small basin of water, fed by rainwater from the roof, which channelled the water into a cistern, then into the drains which ran under the pavement of the street. It is named after two fluted antae that flank its doorway.</p><br>
<p>The House of Atys (2nd century BC) was named for the castrated lover of Cybele, because of a marble relief of Atys found in the ruins. It had an atrium with a shallow basin, or impluvium, in the center and a well with a curbstone lip, stone benches, and was richly built. It was probably a schola, a reception hall for the college of Dendrophores, associated with the neighboring temple.</p><br>
<h2>The Valley of the Sacred Spring</h2><br>
<p>The sacred spring of Glanum is located at the southern and highest part of the town. The valley was closed by a stone wall, built in the late 2nd or early 1st centuries BC. This wall had a gate large enough for chariots, a square tower, and a smaller gate for pedestrians. To the left and right of the gate are vestiges of the older walls, dating from between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC, making a rampart 16 meters high.</p><br>
<p>The Doric portico. Just inside the gate was a building with a portico of doric columns. Vestiges remain of the original structure from the 2nd to 1st century BC. It was rebuilt in about 40 BC, and parts of the columns and portico from this period have been restored. Inside the building were small basins fed by water conduits in the back wall, suggesting that this building was a place where pilgrims to the spring would ritually wash and purify themselves.</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Valetudo. This small temple was dedicated to Valetudo, the Roman goddess of health. The inscription indicates that it was built by Agrippa, the future son-in-law of the Emperor Augustus. The Corinthian columns are in the style of the late Roman Republic; it probably dates to Agrippa&#39;s first voyage to Gaul in 39 BC.</p><br>
<p>The Sacred Spring. The spring and its healing powers were the basis of the reputation and wealth of the town. Originally it was simply a basin carved into the rock. In the 2nd century BC it was covered by a stone building with a decorative facade of stones in a fishscale pattern. A stone stairway led from the spring up to the top of the nearby hill. In the 1st century AD the Roman legionnaire M. Licinius Verecundus built an altar to the right of the stairway, dedicated to the god Glanis, the Glannicae, and to Fortuna Redux, the goddess responsible for the safe return of those far from home. The inscription reads: "To the god Glanis, and the Glanicae, and to Fortuna Redux: Marcus Licinius Verecundus, of the tribe Claudia (an electoral district in Rome), veteran of the XXI Legion Rapaces (Rapaces, or predators, was the nickname of the XXI Legion, which was serving at the time in Germany) - has accomplished his vow with gratitude and good faith."</p><br>
<p>The Chapel of Hercules. The remains of a small chapel devoted to Hercules, the guardian of springs, is located near the spring. Against the walls, the archeologist Henri Roland discovered six altars to Hercules, and the torso of a large statue of Hercules, 1.3 meters high, holding a vase of water, evidently the water of the Glanum spring. The inscription on the base of the statue indicates that it was placed in gratitude for the safe return of the tribune C. Licinius Macer, and the centurions and soldiers from Glanum from a campaign during the 2nd century AD.</p><br>
<h2>Glanum in popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In Robert Holdstock&#39;s fantasy novel Ancient Echoes, Glanum is a sentient, living, moving city which eventually settles at its present site in Provence.</p><br>
<p>Loch Awe  is a large body of freshwater in Argyll and Bute, Scottish Highlands. It has also given its name to a village on its banks, variously known as Loch Awe, or Lochawe. There are islands within the loch such as Innis Chonnell and Inishail.</p><br>
<h2>The loch</h2><br>
<p>It is the third largest freshwater loch in Scotland with a surface area of 38.5 km&sup2;. It is the longest freshwater loch in Scotland, measuring 41 km from end to end with an average width of 1 km. The loch runs approximately south-west to north-east, roughly parallel to the two sea lochs of Loch Etive and Loch Fyne. Via the River Awe and Loch Etive it drains westward from its northern end and thus into the Atlantic Ocean. At the narrowest section of the loch are North Port (Taychreggan Hotel) and South Port (Portsonachan Hotel). Once used by cattle drovers, a ferry ran between these shores to facilitate crossing to markets beyond. The Transatlantic Cable, which runs through the village of Kilchrenan, was laid across at this point in 1955.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectric schemes</h2><br>
<p>Loch Awe is the site of two hydroelectric projects. One is a conventional turbine power station, created by damming the River Awe in the Pass of Brander, feeding the water through underground pipes, and generating electricity as it flows into Loch Etive.</p><br>
<p>The second is a more unusual pumped storage project, using a man-made loch in the hills above the loch; water is pumped up during times of surplus power, and used to power generators at times of peak demand. The second project, known as Cruachan Dam from the name of the hill above, has a visitor centre, which includes tours into the heart of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Loch Awe is renowned for its trout fishing. Salmon pass through the loch, coming past the barrage in the River Awe and continuing into the River Orchy. Loch Awe contains several ruined castles on islands, and at the northern end has one of the most photographed castles in Scotland, Kilchurn Castle, which in summer may be visited by a short boat trip or by a half mile walk from a small car park just after the bridge over the River Orchy. Saint Conan&#39;s Kirk and Chapel of St Fyndoca are located in Loch Awe.</p><br>
<h2>Swimming Loch Awe</h2><br>
<h3>The 3 Lakes Challenge</h3><br>
<p>The 40-mile Three Lakes Challenge (or Loch, Lake, Llyn) is a challenge which was first completed by a 5-person relay with Sam Plum, Jason Betley, Helen Gibbs, Helen Liddle, and Debbie Taylor on 3–4 July 2015 performed under English Channel Rules. The course involves swimming the length of Loch Awe in Scotland (25 miles), then driving to the Lake District and swimming the length of Windermere (10.5 miles), and finally driving to Wales and swimming the length of Llyn Tegid - also known as Bala Lake (4 miles). This new challenge dubbed The 3 Lakes Challenge is designed to be the swimming equivalent of the famous National Three Peaks Challenge.</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, the relay swim along the length of Loch Awe on 3 July 2015 as part of the 3 Lakes Challenge is believed to be the first official relay crossing of Lake Awe under English Channel Rules. The swim was observed in accordance with World Open Water Swimming Association (WOWSA) requirements and placed in their official records.</p><br>
<h3>Solo Swims</h3><br>
<p>The only known officially observed and recorded solo swim of the length of Loch Awe is that achieved by endurance athlete Adrian Rotchell. Adrian entered the water at Torran Bay in the Loch&#39;s lower reaches on 30th July 2016. He exited at Kilchurn Castle where the primary inflow, the River Orchy, meets Loch Awe. His swim was completed in a time of 14 hours, 5 minutes and 10 seconds.</p><br>
<p>Adrians swim was observed by approved members of the British Long Distance Swimming Association (BLDSA), who verified compliance with their rules for traditional swim attire only, no support from fixed or floating objects, no artificial aids to swimming and no exiting the water for any purpose during the swim. Three synchronised stopwatches were used. Upon acceptance by the BLDSA Committee, Adrians swim was lodged as an inaugural solo record.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>One of the oldest Argyll clans, the Macarthurs owned lands around Loch Awe which was populated in close proximity with MacGregors, Campbells and Stewarts.</p><br>
<p>Clan Macarthur artefacts, including the four-poster state bed, are held at Inveraray Castle.</p><br>
<p>It was from Loch Awe and surrounding area that Clan Campbell established itself as a powerful family. In 1308, Robert the Bruce defeated the Clan MacDougall at the Battle of the Pass of Brander downstream from the loch.</p><br>
<h2>Environs</h2><br>
<p>The A85 road and the West Highland Line run along the northern bank of the loch, and the A819 follows the south-east bank for a short distance up to the village of Cladich. From there the single-track B840 runs for the remaining distance to the head of the loch at Ford and then joining the A816 a short distance north of Kilmartin. Similarly, on the north-west side an unclassified single-track road runs the full length from the A85 in Taynuilt to Ford.</p><br>
<p>At the northern tip of the Loch, a railway station was opened in 1880 when the Callander and Oban Railway passed that way, and a large luxury hotel was created (Loch Awe Hotel, 1871). There is also the Tight Line Bar which used to be the coach-house for the hotel. A village has grown up around the hotel, essentially running along the single strip defined by the A85 road. A steamer service used to operate on the loch from the pier just below the hotel, stopping at Portsonachan, Taycreggan, Eredine and Ford. The village now includes St Conan’s Kirk, one of the most interesting pieces of Church architecture in Scotland. Confusingly, while the railway station is called Loch Awe, the village is contracted to Lochawe. The beloved author Mary Stewart (1916 - 2014) resided in her Lochard home, House of Letterawe, during the last several decades of her long life.</p><br>
<p>Saxon Switzerland  is a hilly climbing area and national park around the Elbe valley south-east of Dresden in Saxony, Germany. Together with the Bohemian Switzerland in the Czech Republic it forms the Elbe Sandstone Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Saxon Switzerland alone has some 1,000 climbing peaks, as well as several hollows. The area is popular with Dresden locals and international climbers.</p><br>
<p>The administrative district for the area is Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge. The fortress of Königstein is a well-known landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Derivation of the name</h2><br>
<p>The German name for Saxon Switzerland, Sächsische Schweiz, appeared in the 18th century. Two Swiss artists, Adrian Zingg and Anton Graff, were appointed in 1766 to the Dresden Academy of Art.</p><br>
<p>They felt the landscape was reminiscent of their homeland, the Swiss Jura, and reported in their exchange of letters on the difference between their homeland and "Saxon Switzerland". Previously, the Saxon part of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains had merely been referred to as the Meissen Highlands (Meißner Hochland), Meissen Oberland (Meissen Oberland) or Heath above Schandau (Heide über Schandau).</p><br>
<p>The description became popular through the publication of the name by Wilhelm Lebrecht Götzinger. In his books he described the area as Saxon Switzerland and made the term known to a wide audience.</p><br>
<p>In English the usual translation is "Saxon Switzerland". However other sources call it "Saxony Switzerland" or even "Swiss Saxony".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>To the east, Saxon Switzerland transitions into the Lusatian Highlands and, to the west, into the Ore Mountains. The adjacent Czech part of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains is known as the Bohemian Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>The highest elevation in Saxon Switzerland is the Großer Zschirnstein at 562 m above sea level.</p><br>
<h3>Natural region classification</h3><br>
<p>In the classification of natural regions by Emil Meynen, Saxon Switzerland was a major unit (430) within the Saxon-Bohemian Chalk Sandstone Region (main unit group 43), whose only other major unit on German soil was the Zittau Mountains. The boundary between the two mountain ranges, the Elbe Sandstone Mountains and the Lusatian Mountains, is located on Czech territory, which is why these natural regions are geographically separated from one another.</p><br>
<p>The Ecosystem and Regional Character working group of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig has now, at the beginning of the 21st century, grouped all ranges in the Saxon-Bohemian border region into the super unit Saxon Highlands and Uplands (Sächsisches Bergland und Mittelgebirge). The Lusatian Mountains between Saxon Switzerland and the Zittau Mountains also belong to it, whereas Meynen had grouped it with the loess hill country to the north and east into the major unit of Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz); to the west the new super unit is continued by the main unit groups of the Ore Mountains and Vogtland.</p><br>
<h3>Geological formation</h3><br>
<p>See Elbe Sandstone Mountains (Geology section)</p><br>
<h3>Hills</h3><br>
<p>As a rule, two types of hill may be distinguished.</p><br>
<p>Numerous rock formations in the Elbe Sandstone Mountains, in both Saxon Switzerland and Bohemian Switzerland, are known locally in this region as Steine ("rocks"). Prominent examples are the Königstein, the Lilienstein, the Gohrisch and the Papststein. This description does not, however, include the dome-shaped Kuppen such as the Waitzdorfer Höhe or the Großer Winterberg, whose bedrock is made of volcanic basalt or granitic material.</p><br>
<p>The Cretaceous sandstone formations soar above the so-called "levels" of their surrounding area, the former level of the River Elbe, and represent the remains of an old peneplain. In the course of the Late Tertiary, uplifting of the Ore Mountains and sideways pressure from the Lusatian Highlands shattered the sandstone plate along lines that intersected like a grid and this, combined with the simultaneously increasing stream velocity of the Elbe and regressive erosion in its side valleys, offered new lines of attack and new routes for the destructive power of water. Initially the larger table hills (Lilienstein), or those already deeply fissured like Zirkelstein, Kaiserkrone or already forested (Kohlbornstein), remained, but these too broke up later as a result of erosive destruction into long ridges (Schrammsteine) or even into individual rock pinnacles (Torwächter). Morphologically harder sections of strata, that resisted karstification longer and more successfully, generally form the uppermost layers. The collapse of rock structures is usually therefore a result of erosion from below or from the flanks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the Dark Ages, the region was settled by Slavs and was part of the Kingdom of Bohemia during the Middle Ages. About 1000 years ago Bohemian-Saxon Switzerland was the borderland of three Slavic tribes. The Nisane tribe (east of the Elbe from Dresden to Pirna), the Milzane tribe (from today&#39;s Upper Lusatia) and in the south the Dacine tribe shaped the political and economic landscape at that time.</p><br>
<p>It was not until the 15th century that the area now called Saxon Switzerland came under Saxon hegemony when it became part of the Margraviate of Meissen with boundaries roughly corresponding to those of today.</p><br>
<p>The development of the area for tourism began in earnest in the 19th century. In connexion with that, one of the first trolleybus lines in the world was opened in Saxon Switzerland, the Biela Valley Trolleybus, that was in operation from 1901 to 1904 and worked out of Königstein.</p><br>
<p>Romantic artists were inspired by the beauty of wilderness, like the painter Ludwig Richter or the composer Carl Maria von Weber, who set his famous opera Der Freischütz with its Wolfsschlucht ("Wolf&#39;s Gorge") scene set near the town of Rathen.</p><br>
<p>In the Nazi era the description of German territories as Schweiz ("Switzerland") was officially banned. For that reason, with effect from 19 October 1938, the official term "Sächsische Schweiz" was replaced by "Amtshauptmannschaft Pirna" and from January 1939 by "Kreis Pirna" in the names of the local places of Königstein, Obervogelgesang, Ottendorf, Porschdorf, Rathen, Rathewalde, Rathmannsdorf and Reinhardtsdorf.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval castles</h3><br>
<p>When Germans began to settle in the 13th century, there was a systematic banishment of Bohemian influence and numerous local military conflicts erupted around strategically important fortifications. These fortifications primarily serve to protect the border and trading routes. Due to a lack of central power this protective function was left to local knights. The progressive division of the area due to the hereditary distribution of estates upset the economic balance of the region and many castles degenerated into bases for robber barons.</p><br>
<p>Not until the middle of the 16th century, when the Wettins captured many of the castles did the situation stabilise.</p><br>
<p>Today, these the castles and ruins, some of which are well preserved, are popular with tourists, who make their way to these sites up steep climbing paths.</p><br>
<p>These castles include:</p><br>
<p>Saxony: Hohnstein, Hockstein, Neurathen, Altrathen, Königstein, Lilienstein, Falkenstein, Frienstein, Rauschenstein</p><br>
<p>Bohemia: Schauenstein, Falkenstein, Kreibitzer Burg, Tollenstein, Khaaer Burg, Schönbuche</p><br>
<h2>National park</h2><br>
<p>In September 1990, even before the reunification of Germany, a national park was created in Saxon Switzerland in order to protect the unique natural character of the hill range. The 93 km² area covers two physically separate regions: one near Rathen - the region of the Bastei, Polenz valley, Brand and Uttewalder Grund - and the other embracing the whole Saxon Switzerland Hinterland (Hintere Sächsische Schweiz) between the Elbe and the state border with the Czech Republic and including the Schrammsteinen, Großer Winterberg, Großer Zschand and Kirnitzsch valley.</p><br>
<h2>Rock climbing</h2><br>
<p>Saxon Switzerland is characterized by its sandstone rocks which draw many rock climbers. There are some 14,000 climbing routes on over 1,100 rock pinnacles. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Saxon Rules for rock climbing were established. They are considered to be one of the origins of free climbing. Ropes and bolts may only be used for safety but never as a means of climbing. The use of chalk and common means of protection such as nuts and friends is also not permitted; instead knotted nylon slings are used. With a few exceptions, climbing is only practised and permitted at freestanding rock towers.</p><br>
<p>A Saxon oddity is the concept of a Baustelle (literally "building site") where climbers scale a difficult section by climbing on top of the shoulders of other climbers (sometimes several people on top of each other) with everybody involved only holding himself by holds the rock provides. Though this would normally be considered a form of aid climbing, it is here accepted as a form of free climbing. As the pinnacles are often very close to one other, jumping from one rock to another is also rather popular and this technique even has its own grades of difficulty.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the climbing summits there are also various steep paths, on which hikers with sure-footedness and a head for heights can climb, in places, great heights with the aid of steps, ladders, metal rungs and railings at various points. Amongst the most popular of these climbing paths are the Häntzschelstiege in the Affensteinen, as well as the Heilige Stiege, the Rübezahlstiege and the Rotkehlchenstiege north of Schmilka.</p><br>
<h2>Boofen</h2><br>
<p>A Boofe (plural: Boofen) is local slang for sleeping out overnight in the open under a rock overhang and has a long tradition in Saxon Switzerland. Many young people travel to Saxon Switzerland at weekends in order to boofen. Today it is only permitted by the National Park Authority at designated sites. However the growing number of Boofers and the bad conduct of individuals (e.g. who light illegal campfires, tear up saplings or cause soil erosion) has led to repeated altercations.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>Bastei and Neurathen Castle</p><br>
<p>Bärensteine and Rauenstein near Weißig</p><br>
<p>Biela Valley</p><br>
<p>Stolpen Castle</p><br>
<p>Ruins of Wehlen Castle</p><br>
<p>Rock arch near Wehlen</p><br>
<p>Frienstein and the Ida Grotto</p><br>
<p>Mount Gohrisch with its refuge hut</p><br>
<p>Kaiserkrone and Zirkelstein</p><br>
<p>Kirnitzschtal Tramway, an historic interurban in the Kirnitzsch valley</p><br>
<p>Little Saxon Switzerland, a miniature park layout in the village of Wehlen</p><br>
<p>Königstein Fortress, the largest hill fortress in Europe</p><br>
<p>Kuhstall on the New Wildenstein</p><br>
<p>Lilienstein, Schrammsteine</p><br>
<p>Obere Schleuse, boat trip near Hinterhermsdorf</p><br>
<p>Rathen Open-Air Stage, an open-air theatre</p><br>
<p>Papststein with observation tower and restaurant</p><br>
<p>Pfaffenstein and the Barbarine</p><br>
<p>Wolfsberg</p><br>
<p>Bad Schandau Botanical Gardens, a regional botanical garden</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>Loch Katrine  is a freshwater loch and scenic attraction in the Trossachs area of the Scottish Highlands. It is within the district of Stirling. The loch is 13 km long and 1 km wide at the widest point and runs the length of Strath Gartney . It is a popular destination for tourists and day visitors from Glasgow and nearby towns.</p><br>
<p>The loch derives its name from the term cateran from the Gaelic ceathairne, a collective word meaning cattle thief or possibly peasantry. Historically this referred to a band of fighting men of a clan; hence the term applied to marauders or cattle-lifters, the most notorious of whom was Rob Roy MacGregor who was born at Glengyle House at the northern end of the loch.</p><br>
<p>It is the fictional setting of Sir Walter Scott&#39;s poem The Lady of the Lake and of the subsequent opera by Gioachino Rossini, La donna del lago.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of the loch.</p><br>
<p>Loch Katrine is now owned by Scottish Water, and has been the primary water reservoir for much of the city of Glasgow and its surrounding areas since 1859. The water level has been artificially raised by around 1.8 m - the loch can be drawn down by a maximum of 2 m in order to provide gravitational flow to the Milngavie water treatment works via two 41 km long aqueducts and 21 km of tunnel. Milngavie itself is situated at almost 122 m above sea level - sufficient to provide adequate water pressure to the majority of the city without the need for pumping. The system can deliver up to 230,000,000 l a day. Construction was started in 1855 and the works was opened by Queen Victoria in 1859. The aqueduct project was built under the guidance of the eminent civil engineer John Frederick Bateman (1810–1889), an example of his engineering prowess that can still be seen working today. The second aqueduct was opened in 1901.</p><br>
<p>Water levels are supplemented via a dam and short tunnel from Loch Arklet, a reservoir located between Loch Katrine itself and Loch Lomond, beside the road to Inversnaid, this project was completed in 1914. A longer tunnel beneath Ben A&#39;an which brings water from the Glen Finglas Reservoir was completed in 1958, with dam being completed in 1965.</p><br>
<p>Oil-fired vessels are not permitted to sail its waters due to the danger of pollution to the drinking water of Glasgow. The steamboat SS Sir Walter Scott has provided sailings on the loch since 1900. It was coal-fired until 2007, when it was converted to use bio-diesel fuel, and continues to provide local tourist transport between Trossachs Pier and Stronachlachar during the summer.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>The main access points for Loch Katrine are either via Trossachs Pier at the lochs eastern end or Stronachlachar (Gaelic Sròn a Chlachair "the headland of the stonemason") towards the western end of the loch. Trossachs Pier essentially consists of a parking space, pier, gift shop and cafe (Katrine Cafe) which are open from the first to the last sailing of the cruise boats, (normally 6pm).</p><br>
<p>On the northern shore are the Brenchoile hunting lodge and the farms Letter (Gaelic: Leitir), Edra (Gaelic: Eatarra "between them"), Strone (Gaelic: An t-Sròn "the nose"), Coilachra, Portnellan (Gaelic: Port an Eilein "port of the island") and Glengyle (Gaelic: Gleann Goill "glen of a lowlander"), on the southern are The Dhu (Gaelic: An Dubh "the black") at the western end of the loch, Stronachlachar, the Royal Cottage, Culligart and Glasahoile (Gaelic: Glas-choille "greywood").</p><br>
<p>The roads and paths do not circle the loch completely, as the southern road stops at Glasahoile.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>There are several small islands in Loch Katrine such as Ellens Isle (Gaelic: An t-Eilean Molach "the shingly isle"), the Black Isle and Factors Island (Gaelic: Eilean a&#39; Bhàillidh).</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>Fly and boat fishing for trout is permitted on the loch from spring to autumn.</p><br>
<p>Loch Katrine is also the name of a lake in North Canterbury, New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Loch Katrine is the namesake of The Athole Highlanders&#39; Farewell to Loch Katrine.</p><br>
<p>In 1844, William Henry Fox Talbot took an early photograph of the loch, entitled Scenery of Loch Katrine.</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven  is a fresh water loch in Perth and Kinross council area, central Scotland.</p><br>
<p>Roughly triangular, the loch is about 6 km at its longest. The burgh of Kinross lies at its western end. Loch Leven Castle lies on an island a short way offshore, where Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned in 1567, and it can be reached by ferry, operated from Kinross by Historic Scotland during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the canalisation of the River Leven, and the partial draining of the Loch in the early 19th century, Loch Leven was considerably larger. The drop in water level exposed several small islands, and greatly increased the size of the existing ones.</p><br>
<p>Several relics were found during the draining, one of them being a sceptre, "apparently of cane, hilted with ivory, and mounted with silver, upon which … were the letters of the words, "Mary, Queen of Scots"," found near the Mary Knowe, where she is supposed to have landed after her escape from the castle.</p><br>
<p>St Serfs Inch is the largest of Loch Levens seven islands and it was the home of a Culdee and then an Augustinian monastic community, St Serf&#39;s Inch Priory. There was a monastic community on the island which was old in the 12th century. The monastery produced a series of Gaelic language charters from the 11th and 12th centuries which were translated into Latin in the late 12th century.</p><br>
<p>There is an all abilities path around the loch, known as the, which can be accessed from seven different car parks around the loch at Kinross Pier; Kirkgate Park; Burleigh Sands; Loch Leven&#39;s Larder; Findatie; RSPB Loch Leven car park; and the car park at the Cashmere Factory.</p><br>
<h2>Loch Leven National Nature Reserve</h2><br>
<p>Loch Leven forms the main part of the Loch Leven National Nature Reserve (NNR), which covers 1925 hectares, including 1300 hectares of loch and islands. The NNR is managed in partnership by a number of groups.</p><br>
<p>The majority of the land and water within Loch Leven NNR is managed by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), with the wetlands on the southern shore managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the fishing and shooting managed by Kinross Estate. Additionally, Castle Island is managed by Historic Scotland, who also run the ferry to the island.</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven was first declared a National Nature Reserve in 1964 and re-declared in 2002, when it was extended to include the RSPB Loch Leven section. As the largest lowland loch in Scotland, it is an important site for waterfowl, with up to 35,000 birds present in the winter months. These birds migrate to Loch Leven from a variety of places, such as Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Siberia and northern and central Europe. Detailed information on the wildlife at Loch Leven can be found in SNH&#39;s publication,.</p><br>
<h3>Designations</h3><br>
<p>Loch Leven is an internationally important site for wildlife and as such, has a number of designations:</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven Special Protection Area (SPA)</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven RAMSAR site</p><br>
<p>Loch Leven National Nature Reserve (NNR)</p><br>
<p>Scheduled Monuments: Loch Leven Castle and St Serf&#39;s Priory</p><br>
<p>Loch Fyne; , meaning Loch of the Vine or Wine, is a sea loch off the Firth of Clyde and forms part of the coast of the Cowal peninsula. Located on the west coast of Argyll and Bute, Scotland. It extends 65 km inland from the Sound of Bute, making it the longest of the sea lochs. It is connected to the Sound of Jura by the Crinan Canal. Although there is no evidence that grapes have grown there, the title is probably honorific, indicating that the river, "Abhainn Fìne", was a well-respected river.</p><br>
<p>In the north the terrain is mountainous, with the Arrochar Alps, Beinn Bhuidhe, Glen Shira, Glen Fyne, Glen Croe, Arrochar, Tyndrum and Loch Lomond nearby.</p><br>
<p>It is overlooked by the Tinkers Heart, an old travelers monument</p><br>
<p>Loch Fyne is a popular area for sport diving and fishing. It is also a popular tourist destination with attractions such as Inveraray Castle and the nearby ruins of Castle MacEwen and Old Castle Lachlan.</p><br>
<p>The village of Portavadie is on the east shore of the loch. A passenger ferry traverses the loch to Tarbert from the slipway at Portavadie.</p><br>
<p>Dolphins, seals and otters inhabit the loch, and basking sharks can appear in its waters during the summer months. A Ross&#39;s gull was present at the loch in early 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Crinan Canal</h2><br>
<p>The Crinan Canal connects Loch Fyne at Ardrishaig and the Sound of Jura at the hamlet of Crinan itself, giving a shortcut for smaller vessels out to the Hebrides saving the longer route of going around the Kintyre peninsula. The canal was built between 1794 and 1801 when the canal was opened, under the supervision of John Rennie. In 1816 Thomas Telford redisgned parts of the canal to remedy technical issues with water supplies for the canal. There are fifteen Locks along the canals nine mile length.</p><br>
<h2>Fisheries</h2><br>
<p>Loch Fyne has a reputation for its oyster fishery, and as a consequence, the loch has given its name to the once locally owned Loch Fyne Oysters and to the associated Loch Fyne Restaurants. It is also notable for its herring-fishing industry, and hence the famous Loch Fyne Kipper, originally caught using the drift-net method. In the mid-19th century, Loch Fyne was the center of the battle between the traditional drift-net fishermen and the new trawl-net fishermen who sprang up around Tarbert and Campbeltown in 1833.</p><br>
<p>Several Scottish sea-fishing records have been set in the loch:</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<p>Around a quarter of a million troops trained at HMS Quebec, No.1 Combined Training Centre, Inveraray in amphibious-landing techniques on the shores of Loch Fyne prior to the D-Day landings.</p><br>
<p>Some 30 senior officers, each with a staff vehicle and radio also took part in a top secret deception exercise to convince the Germans that a major sea assault was being prepared but could not be launched until at least September 1944.</p><br>
<p>Loch Maree  is a loch in Wester Ross in the Northwest Highlands of Scotland. At 20 km long and with a maximum width of 4 km, it is the fourth largest freshwater loch in Scotland; it is the largest north of Loch Ness. Its surface area is 28.6 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Loch Maree contains five large wooded islands and over 60 smaller ones, many of which have their own lakelets. Isle Maree has the remains of a chapel, graveyard, holy well, and holy tree on it, believed to be the 8th century hermitage of Saint Máel Ruba (d. 722), who founded the monastery of Applecross in 672. The same island contains ancient stands of oak and holly which have been linked with ancient Scottish druids.</p><br>
<p>The waters of the loch were also thought to have curative effects, with being submerged in the water thought to be a cure for lunacy. All of the loch&#39;s islands are conservation areas. The largest is the only island in Britain to contain a loch that itself contains an island. Like Loch Ness, Loch Maree has its own monster in the form of the muc-sheilch. The loch is often referred to as the most beautiful loch in the Highlands.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Due to its remote location there is little industry and tourism surrounding Loch Maree. Early on, it became a popular spot for trout fishing after Queen Victoria visited the Loch Maree Hotel at Talladale in 1877, a visit which led to the naming of Victoria Falls, an attractive waterfall feeding the loch from Beinn Eighe on its south side.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Loch Maree is of international importance for its special wildlife and biodiversity. Until recently, thousands of adult sea trout (seagoing brown trout Salmo trutta) and salmon (Salmo salar) returned to the loch from the sea every summer. Sea trout gathered in huge numbers in certain bays, providing some of the most exciting angling in Scotland for which the loch had an international reputation. A British record sea trout of 19.5 lb was caught on a "dapping fly" in the loch in 1952. The sea trout fishery collapsed in the 1980s and 1990s.</p><br>
<p>Sea trout and salmon are an important part of Loch Maree&#39;s ecosystem providing food for black-throated diver and otter (Lutra lutra) for which the loch is a designated Special Area of Conservation and Special Protected Area under the EU Habitats Directive. Juvenile trout can be an important part of the diet of black-throated diver. The loch also has two separate populations of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) about which little is known. One form of charr, with a big eye which feeds on the bottom in deep water matures at less than 15 cm. The other form grows to over 32 cm and can sometimes be seen in shoals ruffling the surface when the loch is calm.</p><br>
<p>Loch Maree was designated a Ramsar site on 19 September 1994. The area hosts the golden eagle.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains</h2><br>
<p>The loch is bounded to the east by Slioch, a mountain over 3000 feet high, and which dominates its surroundings. It is composed mainly of Torridonian sandstone of Precambrian age. It is a popular for hill walking, scrambling and climbing. The main peak to the west is Beinn Eighe, a Torridonian mountain capped with quartzite.</p><br>
<h2>In media</h2><br>
<p>Button-box accordionist, Fergie MacDonald topped the Scottish pop charts in 1966 with the tune "Loch Maree Islands" which pays tribute to the views of the Loch, and vocal versions have been recorded by many artists over the years, notably Calum Kennedy.</p><br>
<p>In the 2009-10 series of the BBCs Natural World, episode 6, Highland Haven, stayed closer to home than usual, with a year-long look at the environment and wildlife of the UKs oldest National Nature Reserve, Beinn Eighe, along the southern shores of Loch Maree.</p><br>
<p>Loch Maree is mentioned in the Runrig song "The Summer Walkers" from the album "The Stamping Ground"</p><br>
<p>Loch Morar  is a freshwater loch in Lochaber, Highland, Scotland. It is the fifth-largest loch by surface area in Scotland, at 26.7 km&sup2, and the deepest freshwater body in the British Isles with a maximum depth of 1,017 ft. The loch was created by glacial action around 10,000 years ago, and has a surface elevation of 9 m above sea level. It separates the traditional district of North Morar , from Arisaig and Moidart</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Loch Morar is 18.8 km long, has a surface area of 26.7 km&sup2, and is the deepest freshwater body in the British Isles with a maximum depth of 1,017 ft. In 1910, John Murray and Laurence Pullar found it to have a mean depth of 284 ft and a total volume of 81,482,000,000 ft&sup3; during their survey of Scottish lochs. The bottom is deepened below the United Kingdom Continental Shelf, and until 1943, when a depth of 1,062 ft was observed in the Inner Sound, it was believed to be the deepest water in the United Kingdom. The surface of the loch is 9 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The water of the loch is clear and oligotrophic, with a minimal intake of nutrients, making it a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). The main inflow is the River Meoble at the southern end, which drains from Loch Beoraid, although there are three other major inflows at the eastern end of the loch and a stream draining a complex of lochans to the north-west of Loch Morar.</p><br>
<p>Swordland Lodge, on the northern shore of the loch, was used as training school STS 23b during the Second World War by the Special Operations Executive. A 750 KW hydroelectric power station with a hydraulic head of 5.5 m was built on the River Morar in 1948.</p><br>
<h2>Habitation</h2><br>
<p>At the western end of the loch is the village of Morar, which is between Arisaig and Mallaig on the coastal A830 road. The settlements of Bracorina and Bracara are located along the northern shore of the loch, but there is no road along the southern shore. Tarbet, on the shore of Loch Nevis, is a short distance from Loch Morar.</p><br>
<p>During the period of the Highland Clearances, many residents emigrated to Canada. Boats left in 1790, 1802, and 1826, carrying people to Quebec, Glengarry in Ontario, and the Strait of Canso in Nova Scotia respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Loch Morar is located entirely within the Morar Group of sediments, which were deposited in the latter part of the Cambrian, and subsequently subjected to many phases of deformation.</p><br>
<p>The loch occupies a basin produced by the overdeepening of the valley by glacial erosion, along an east-west fault line. It is not a sea loch due to isostatic rebound that raised the rock sill at the end of the loch.</p><br>
<p>Based on estimates of erosion of between 2 - per year, the deep basin was created over a period of 67,000 – 150,000 years of glacial action, which occurred intermittently during the last million years of the Quaternary glaciation. Subsequently, colonised by vegetation and known as Mointeach Mhòr (the mossy plain), these deposits blocked the outflow of the loch to the south, so that it drained from the north-west corner instead.</p><br>
<p>The catchment area of the loch is 168 km&sup2, and the geology is base-poor. A site to the north of the loch was selected in 2011 as a SSSI for its characteristic rock exposures of the Moine group by the Geological Conservation Review, replacing the area around Mallaig harbour, which had been previously regarded as the most representative site.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The loch is surrounded by a mix of natural woodland, open hillside, sheep and cattle pasture and planted mixed coniferous and broadleaf woodlands. Only around 0.7% of the surface of the loch can be colonised by plants.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>Loch Morar&#39;s fish population is believed to be limited to Atlantic Salmon, brown trout and sea trout, Arctic char, eel, stickleback, and minnow. Trout average around 0.75 lb in size, but ferox trout of up to 15 lb have been caught. The loch is also known to contain eels, although none were caught in a recent survey of eel populations in Lochaber, suggesting that they prefer the loch to the tributaries surveyed. Catches of salmon and sea trout declined dramatically between the 1970s and 1980s, in common with other catchments on the west coast. Artificial stocking of the River Morar with salmon and sea trout was suspended in 2007 after the hatchery was closed.</p><br>
<p>The main salmonid spawning grounds are the River Meoble and the smaller burns that feed into the loch. The hydroelectric power station, which contain one of only two fish counters in Lochaber, is shut down during the smolt run, following a study on smolt mortality in 1992.</p><br>
<p>The catchment is managed by the Morar District Salmon Fishery Sub-board, which employs a full-time fisheries manager. Poaching in the form of netting has been known to occur at the mouth of the River Morar.</p><br>
<h2>Monster</h2><br>
<p>In common with Loch Ness, occasional reports of large unidentified creatures in the loch&#39;s waters are made. The monster has been dubbed Morag.</p><br>
<p>Prinz Eugen was an heavy cruiser, the third member of the class of five vessels. She served with Nazi Germany&#39;s Kriegsmarine during World War II. The ship was laid down in April 1936, launched in August 1938, and entered service after the outbreak of war, in August 1940. She was named after Prince Eugene of Savoy, an 18th-century Austrian general.</p><br>
<p>Prinz Eugen saw action during Operation Rheinübung, an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship in May 1941. The two ships destroyed the British battlecruiser and moderately damaged the battleship in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping, but this was cut short due to engine troubles. After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs, the ship participated in Operation Cerberus, a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany. In February 1942, Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway, although her time stationed there was curtailed when she was torpedoed by the British submarine days after arriving in Norwegian waters. The torpedo severely damaged the ship&#39;s stern, which necessitated repairs in Germany.</p><br>
<p>Upon returning to active service, the ship spent several months training officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support for the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front. After the German collapse in May 1945, she was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize. After examining the ship in the United States, the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll. Having survived the atomic blasts, Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll, where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946. The wreck remains partially visible above the water approximately two miles northwest of Bucholz Army Airfield, on the edge of Enubuj. One of her screw propellers was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Prinz Eugen was 207.7 m long overall, and had a beam of 21.7 m and a maximum draft of 7.2 m. After launching, her straight bow was replaced with a clipper bow, increasing the length overall to 212.5 m. The new bow kept her foredeck much drier in heavy weather. The ship had a design displacement of 16,970 metric tons and a full-load displacement of 18,750 LT. Prinz Eugen was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines, which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra-high pressure oil-fired boilers. The ship&#39;s top speed was 32 kn, at 101.131 MW. As designed, her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1,340 enlisted men.</p><br>
<p>The ship&#39;s primary armament was eight 20.3 cm SK L/60 guns mounted in four twin turrets, placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft. Her anti-aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10.5 cm L/65 guns, twelve 3.7 cm guns, and eight 2 cm guns. The ship also carried a pair of triple 53.3 cm torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure. For aerial reconnaissance, she was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult. Prinz Eugens armored belt was 70 to 80 mm thick; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm thick and her main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm thick. The main battery turrets had 105 mm thick faces and 70 mm thick sides.</p><br>
<h2>Service history</h2><br>
<p>Prinz Eugen was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel. Her keel was laid on 23 April 1936, under construction number 564 and cover name Kreuzer J. She was originally to be named after Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, the Austrian victor of the Battle of Lissa, though considerations over the possible insult to Italy, defeated by Tegetthoff at Lissa, led the Kriegsmarine to adopt Prinz Eugen as the ship&#39;s namesake. She was launched on 22 August 1938, in a ceremony attended by the Governor (Reichsstatthalter) of the Ostmark, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, who made the christening speech. Also present at the launch were Adolf Hitler, the Regent of Hungary, Admiral Miklós Horthy (who had commanded the battleship from 24 November 1917 to 1 March 1918), and his wife Magdolna Purgly, who performed the christening. As built, the ship had a straight stem, though after her launch this was replaced with a clipper bow. A raked funnel cap was also installed.</p><br>
<p>Commissioning was delayed slightly due to light damage sustained during a Royal Air Force attack on Kiel on the night of 1 July 1940. Prinz Eugen suffered two relatively light hits in the attack, but she was not seriously damaged and was commissioned into service the following month on 1 August. The cruiser spent the remainder of 1940 conducting sea trials in the Baltic Sea. In early 1941, the ship&#39;s artillery crews conducted gunnery training. A short period in dry dock for final modifications and improvements followed. In April, the ship joined the newly commissioned battleship for maneuvers in the Baltic. The two ships had been selected for Operation Rheinübung, a breakout into the Atlantic to raid Allied commerce.</p><br>
<p>On 23 April, while passing through the Fehmarn Belt en route to Kiel, Prinz Eugen detonated a magnetic mine dropped by British aircraft. The mine damaged the fuel tank, propeller shaft couplings, and fire control equipment. The planned sortie with Bismarck was delayed while repairs were carried out. Admirals Erich Raeder and Günther Lütjens discussed the possibility of delaying the operation further, in the hopes that repairs to the battleship would be completed or Bismarcks sistership would complete trials in time for the ships to join Prinz Eugen and Bismarck. Raeder and Lütjens decided that it would be most beneficial to resume surface actions in the Atlantic as soon as possible, however, and that the two ships should sortie without reinforcement.</p><br>
<h3>Operation Rheinübung</h3><br>
<p>By 11 May 1941, repairs to Prinz Eugen had been completed. Under the command of Kapitän zur See (KzS—Captain at Sea) Helmuth Brinkmann, the ship steamed to Gotenhafen, where the crew readied her for her Atlantic sortie. On 18 May, Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with Bismarck off Cape Arkona. The two ships were escorted by three destroyers—, and —and a flotilla of minesweepers. The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters. At around 13:00 on 20 May, the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat. Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters, stating: "Two large ships, three destroyers, five escort vessels, and 10–12 aircraft passed Marstrand, course 205°/20&#39;." The Oberkommando der Marine (OKM—Naval High Command) was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland, though Lütjens believed operational security had been lost. The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham, the British naval attaché to Sweden, who transmitted the information to the Admiralty.</p><br>
<p>The code-breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent, as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters. A pair of Supermarine Spitfires were ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the German flotilla. On the evening of 20 May, Prinz Eugen and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north. The following morning, radio-intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast. At 7:00 on the 21st, the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft that quickly departed. Shortly after 12:00, the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord. While there, the ships&#39; crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard "outboard gray" worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>While in Bergen, Prinz Eugen took on 764 metric tons of fuel; Bismarck inexplicably failed to similarly refuel. At 19:30 on 21 May, Prinz Eugen, Bismarck, and the three escorting destroyers left port. By midnight, the force was in the open sea and headed toward the Arctic Ocean. At this time, Admiral Raeder finally informed Hitler of the operation, who reluctantly allowed it to continue as planned. The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04:14 on 22 May, while the force steamed off Trondheim. At around 12:00, Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the breakout into the open waters of the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>By 04:00 on 23 May, Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen and Bismarck to increase speed to 27 kn to make the dash through the Denmark Strait. Upon entering the Strait, both ships activated their FuMO radar detection equipment sets. Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about 700 m; mist reduced visibility to 3000 to 4000 m. The Germans encountered some ice at around 10:00, which necessitated a reduction in speed to 24 kn. Two hours later, the pair had reached a point north of Iceland. The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes. At 19:22, hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser at a range of approximately 12,500 m. Prinz Eugens radio-intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had indeed been reported.</p><br>
<p>Admiral Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk, though the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held fire. Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships. At 20:30, the heavy cruiser joined Suffolk, but approached the German raiders too closely. Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser; Bismarck fired five salvoes, three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks. The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank, ending the brief engagement. The concussion from the 38 cm guns disabled Bismarcks FuMo 23 radar set; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation.</p><br>
<p>The British cruisers tracked Prinz Eugen and Bismarck through the night, continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships. The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May, revealing a clear sky. At 05:07 that morning, hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of 20 nmi, reporting "Noise of two fast-moving turbine ships at 280° relative bearing!". At 05:45, lookouts on the German ships spotted smoke on the horizon; these turned out to be from and, under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland. Lütjens ordered his ships&#39; crews to battle stations. By 05:52, the range had fallen to 26,000 m and Hood opened fire, followed by Prince of Wales a minute later. Hood engaged Prinz Eugen, which the British thought to be Bismarck, while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck.</p><br>
<p>The British ships approached the Germans head on, which permitted them to use only their forward guns, while Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides. Several minutes after opening fire, Holland ordered a 20° turn to port, which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets. Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood. About a minute after opening fire, Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high-explosive 20.3 cm shell, detonating Unrotated Projectile ammunition and starting a large fire on Hood, which was quickly extinguished. Holland then ordered a second 20° turn to port, to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen. By this time, Bismarck had found the range to Hood, so Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales to keep both of his opponents under fire. Within a few minutes, Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship and reported that a small fire had been started.</p><br>
<p>Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck, so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk, which were still some 10 to 12 nmi to the east. At 06:00, Hood was completing her second turn to port when Bismarcks fifth salvo hit. Two of the shells landed short, striking the water close to the ship, but at least one of the 38 cm armour-piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin upper belt armor. The shell reached Hoods rear ammunition magazine and detonated 112 metric tons of cordite propellant. The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in-rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle. The stern similarly rose upward as water rushed into the ripped-open compartments. After only eight minutes of firing, Hood had disappeared, taking all but three of her crew of 1,419 men with her.</p><br>
<p>After a few more minutes, during which Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck, the damaged British battleship withdrew. The Germans ceased fire as the range widened, though Captain Ernst Lindemann, Bismarcks commander, strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her. Lütjens firmly rejected the request, and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the open waters of the North Atlantic. After the end of the engagement, Lütjens reported that a "Battlecruiser, probably Hood, sunk. Another battleship, King George V or Renown, turned away damaged. Two heavy cruisers maintain contact." At 08:01, he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM, which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for St. Nazaire for repairs. Shortly after 10:00, Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit. After confirming "broad streams of oil on both sides of wake", Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position.</p><br>
<p>With the weather worsening, Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16:40. The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake-Walkers cruisers, which continued to maintain radar contact. Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily. The cruiser was successfully detached at 18:14. Bismarck turned around to face Wake-Walkers formation, forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed. Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck, which responded with nine salvos, none of which hit. The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away.</p><br>
<p>On 26 May, Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with the supply ship Spichern to refill her nearly empty fuel tanks. She had by then only some 160 tons fuel left, enough for a day. Afterwards the ship continued further south on a mission against shipping lines. However, before any merchant ship was found, defects in her engines showed and on 27 May, the day Bismarck herself was sunk, she was ordered to give up her mission and make for a port in occupied France. On 28 May Prinz Eugen refuelled from the tanker Esso Hamburg. The same day more engine problems showed up, including trouble with the port engine turbine, the cooling of the middle engine and problems with the starboard screw, reducing her speed to maximum 28 knots. The screw problems could only be checked and repaired in a dock and thus Brest, with its large docks and repair facilities, was chosen as destination. Despite the many British warships and several convoys in the area, at least 104 units were identified on the 29th by the ship&#39;s radio crew, Prinz Eugen reached the Bay of Biscay undiscovered, and on 1 June the ship was joined by German destroyers and aircraft off the coast of France south of Brest; and escorted to Brest, which she reached late on 1 June where she immediately entered dock.</p><br>
<h3>Operation Cerberus and Norwegian operations</h3><br>
<p>Brest is not far from bases in southern England and during their stay in Brest Prinz Eugen and the battleships Scharnhorst and were repeatedly attacked by Allied bombers. The Royal Air Force jokingly referred to the three ships as the Brest Bomb Target Flotilla, and between 1 August and 31 December 1941 it dropped some 1200 tons of bombs on the port. On the night of 1 July 1941, Prinz Eugen was struck by an armour-piercing bomb that destroyed the control center deep down under the bridge. The attack killed 60 men and wounded more than 40 others. Among those killed was First Watch Officer, Fregattenkapitän ("Frigate Captain," Commander) Otto Stooß. The loss of the control center also made the main guns useless and repairs lasted until the end of 1941.</p><br>
<p>The continuous air attacks led the German command to decide Prinz Eugen, Scharnhorst and Gneisenau would have to move to safer bases as soon as they were repaired and ready. Meanwhile, the Bismarck operation had demonstrated the risks of operating in the Atlantic without air cover. In addition, Hitler saw the Norwegian theater as the "zone of destiny", so he ordered the three ships return to Germany in early 1942 so they could be deployed there. The intention was use the ships to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union, as well as to strengthen the defenses of Norway. Hitler insisted they would make the voyage via the English Channel, despite Raeders protests that it was too risky. Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation. In early February, minesweepers swept a route through the Channel, though the British failed to detect the activity.</p><br>
<p>At 23:00 on 11 February, Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Prinz Eugen left Brest. They entered the Channel an hour later; the three ships sped at 27 kn, hugging the French coast along the voyage. By 06:30, they had passed Cherbourg, at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats. The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey, aboard the destroyer. General der Jagdflieger (General of Fighter Force) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces (Operation Donnerkeil) during Cerberus. The fighters flew at masthead-height to avoid detection by the British radar network. Liaison officers were present on all three ships. German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff. By 13:00, the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover but, half an hour later, a flight of six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers, with Spitfire escort, attacked the Germans. The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield, and all six Swordfish were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Off Dover, Prinz Eugen came under fire from British coastal artillery batteries, though they scored no hits. Several Motor Torpedo Boats then attacked the ship, but Prinz Eugens destroyer escorts drove the vessels off before they could launch their torpedoes. At 16:43, Prinz Eugen encountered five British destroyers:, ,, and. She fired her main battery at them and scored several hits on Worcester, but she was forced to maneuver erratically to avoid their torpedoes. Nevertheless, Prinz Eugen arrived in Brunsbüttel on the morning of 13 February, completely undamaged but suffering the only casualty in all three big ships, killed by aircraft gunfire.</p><br>
<p>On 21 February 1942, Prinz Eugen, the heavy cruiser, and the destroyers, ,, and steamed to Norway. After stopping briefly in Grimstadfjord, the ships proceeded on to Trondheim. Two days later, while patrolling off the Trondheimsfjord, the British submarine torpedoed Prinz Eugen. The torpedo struck the ship in the stern, killing 50 men - mainly passengers, causing serious damage and rendering the ship unmaneuverable. However, on her own power she managed to reach Trondheim and from there to was towed to, where, over the next few months, emergency repairs were effected. Her entire stern was cut away and plated over and two jury-rigged rudders, operated manually via capstans, were installed.</p><br>
<p>On 16 May, Prinz Eugen made the return voyage to Germany under her own power. While en route to Kiel, the ship was attacked by a British force of 19 Bristol Blenheim bombers and 27 Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers commanded by Wing Commander Mervyn Williams, though the aircraft failed to hit the ship. Prinz Eugen was out of service for repairs until October; she conducted sea trials beginning on 27 October. Hans-Erich Voss, who later became Hitlers Naval Liaison Officer, was given command of the ship when she returned to service. In reference to her originally planned name, the ships bell from the Austrian battleship was presented on 22 November by the Italian Contrammiraglio (Rear Admiral) de Angeles. Over the course of November and December, the ship was occupied with lengthy trials in the Baltic. In early January 1943, the Kriegsmarine ordered the ship to return to Norway to reinforce the warships stationed there. Twice in January Prinz Eugen attempted to steam to Norway with Scharnhorst, but both attempts were broken off after British surveillance aircraft spotted the two ships. After it became apparent that it would be impossible to move the ship to Norway, Prinz Eugen was assigned to the Fleet Training Squadron. For nine months, she cruised the Baltic training cadets.</p><br>
<h3>Service in the Baltic</h3><br>
<p>As the Soviet Army pushed the Wehrmacht back on the Eastern Front, it became necessary to reactivate Prinz Eugen as a gunnery support vessel; on 1 October 1943, the ship was reassigned to combat duty. In June 1944, Prinz Eugen, the heavy cruiser Lützow, and the 6th Destroyer Flotilla formed the Second Task Force, later renamed Task Force Thiele after its commander, Vizeadmiral August Thiele. Prinz Eugen was at this time under the command of KzS Hans-Jürgen Reinicke; throughout June she steamed in the eastern Baltic, northwest of the island of Utö as a show of force during the German withdrawal from Finland. On 19–20 August, the ship steamed into the Gulf of Riga and bombarded Tukums. Four destroyers and two torpedo boats supported the action, along with Prinz Eugens Ar 196 floatplanes; the cruiser fired a total of 265 shells from her main battery. Prinz Eugens bombardment was instrumental in the successful repulse of the Soviet attack.</p><br>
<p>In early September, Prinz Eugen supported a failed attempt to seize the fortress island of Hogland. The ship then returned to Gotenhafen, before escorting a convoy of ships evacuating German soldiers from Finland. The convoy, consisting of six freighters, sailed on 15 September from the Gulf of Bothnia, with the entire Second Task Force escorting it. Swedish aircraft and destroyers shadowed the convoy, but did not intervene. The following month, Prinz Eugen returned to gunfire support duties. On 11 and 12 October, she fired in support of German troops in Memel. Over the first two days, the ship fired some 700 rounds of ammunition from her main battery. She returned on the 14th and 15th, after having restocked her main battery ammunition, to fire another 370 rounds.</p><br>
<p>While on the return voyage to Gotenhafen on 15 October, Prinz Eugen inadvertently rammed the light cruiser amidships north of Hela. The cause of the collision was heavy fog. The light cruiser was nearly cut in half, and the two ships remained wedged together for fourteen hours. Prinz Eugen was taken to Gotenhafen, where repairs were effected with a month. Sea trials commenced on 14 November. On 20–21 November, the ship supported German troops on the Sworbe Peninsula by firing around 500 rounds of main battery ammunition. Four torpedo boats—T13, T16, T19, and T21—joined the operation. Prinz Eugen then returned to Gotenhafen to resupply and have her worn-out gun barrels re-bored.</p><br>
<p>The cruiser was ready for action by mid-January 1945, when she was sent to bombard Soviet forces in Samland. The ship fired 871 rounds of ammunition at the Soviets advancing on the German bridgehead at Cranz held by the XXVIII Corps, which was protecting Königsberg. She was supported in this operation by the destroyer Z25 and torpedo boat. At that point, Prinz Eugen had expended her main battery ammunition, and critical munition shortages forced the ship to remain in port until 10 March, when she bombarded Soviet forces around Gotenhafen, Danzig, and Hela. During these operations, she fired a total of 2,025 shells from her 20.3 cm guns and another 2,446 rounds from her 10.5 cm guns. The old battleship also provided gunfire support, as did Lützow after 25 March. The ships were commanded by Vizeadmiral Bernhard Rogge.</p><br>
<p>The following month, on 8 April, Prinz Eugen and Lützow steamed to Swinemünde. On 13 April, 34 Lancaster bombers attacked the two ships while in port. Thick cloud cover forced the British to abort the mission and return two days later. On the second attack, they succeeded in sinking Lützow with a single Tallboy bomb hit. Prinz Eugen then departed Swinemünde for Copenhagen, arriving on 20 April. Once there, she was decommissioned on 7 May and turned over to Royal Navy control the following day. For his leadership of Prinz Eugen in the final year of the war, Reinicke was awarded the Knight&#39;s Cross of the Iron Cross on 21 April 1945. Prinz Eugen was mentioned twice in Wehrmachtbericht during her operational career, the first time on 13 February 1942 and the second time on 18 May 1942.</p><br>
<h3>Service with the US Navy</h3><br>
<p>On 27 May 1945, Prinz Eugen and the light cruiser —the only major German naval vessels to survive the war—were escorted by the British cruisers and to Wilhelmshaven. On 13 December, Prinz Eugen was awarded as a war prize to the United States, which sent the ship to Wesermünde. The United States did not particularly want the cruiser, but it did want to prevent the Soviet Union from acquiring it. Her US commander, Captain Arthur H. Graubart, recounted later how the British, Soviet and US representatives in the Control Commission all claimed the ship and how in the end the various large prizes were divided in three lots, Prinz Eugen being one of them. The three lots were then drawn lottery style from his hat with the British and Soviet representatives drawing the lots for other ships and Graubart being left with the lot for Prinz Eugen. The cruiser was commissioned into the US Navy as the unclassified miscellaneous vessel USS Prinz Eugen&#39; with the hull number IX-300. A composite American-German crew consisting of 574 German officers and sailors, supervised by eight American officers and eighty-five enlisted men under the command of Graubart, then took the ship to Boston, departing on 13 January 1946 and arriving on 22 January.</p><br>
<p>After arriving in Boston, the ship was extensively examined by the US Navy. Her very large GHG passive sonar array was removed and installed on the submarine for testing. American interest in magnetic amplifier technology increased again after findings in investigations of the fire control system of Prinz Eugen. The guns from turret Anton were removed while in Philadelphia in February. On 1 May the German crewmen left the ship and returned to Germany. Thereafter, the American crew had significant difficulties in keeping the ship&#39;s propulsion system operational—eleven of her twelve boilers failed after the Germans departed. The ship was then allocated to the fleet of target ships for Operation Crossroads in Bikini Atoll. Operation Crossroads was a major test of the effects of nuclear weapons on warships of various types. The trouble with Prinz Eugens propulsion system may have influenced the decision to dispose of her in the nuclear tests.</p><br>
<p>She was towed to the Pacific via Philadelphia and the Panama Canal, departing on 3 March. The ship survived two atomic bomb blasts: Test Able, an air burst on 1 July 1946 and Test Baker, a submerged detonation on 25 July. Prinz Eugen was moored about 1,200 yd from the epicenter of both blasts and was only lightly damaged by them; the Able blast only bent her foremast and broke the top of her main mast. She suffered no significant structural damage from the explosions but was thoroughly contaminated with radioactive fallout. The irradiated ship was towed to the Kwajalein Atoll in the central Pacific, where a small leak went unrepaired due to the radiation danger. On 29 August 1946, the US Navy decommissioned Prinz Eugen.</p><br>
<p>By late December 1946, the ship was in very bad condition; on 21 December, she began to list severely. A salvage team could not be brought to Kwajalein in time, so the US Navy attempted to beach the ship to prevent her from sinking, but on 22 December, Prinz Eugen capsized and sank. Her main battery gun turrets fell out of their barbettes when the ship rolled over. The ships stern, including her propeller assemblies, remains visible above the surface of the water. The US government denied salvage rights on the grounds that it did not want the irradiated steel entering the market. In August 1979, one of the ships screw propellers was retrieved and placed in the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany. The ship&#39;s bell is currently held at the National Museum of the United States Navy, while the bell from Tegetthoff is held in Graz, Austria.</p><br>
<h3>Casualties</h3><br>
<p>During her operational career with the Kriegsmarine, Prinz Eugen lost 115 crew members; 79 men were killed in action, 33 were killed in accidents and three died of other causes. Of these 115 crew members, four were officers, seven were cadets or ensigns, two were petty officers, 22 were junior petty officers, 78 were sailors and two were civilians.</p><br>
<p>The Walensee is one of the larger lakes in Switzerland. About 2/3 of its surface in the Canton of St. Gallen and about 1/3 in the Canton of Glarus. It is also known as Lake Walen or Lake Walenstadt, after Walenstadt. Other towns and villages at the lake include: Weesen, Quinten, Quarten, and Murg.</p><br>
<p>The three main rivers leading to this lake are the Seez, Murgbach, and Linth. The latter continues its course from Walensee to Lake Zurich. The Schnittlauchinsel, located at the eastern end of the lake, is the only island in the Walensee.</p><br>
<p>The Churfirsten range raises steeply on the north side from the lakes level at 419 m to 2,306 m above sea level. On the south, the lake is overlooked by the massif of the Mürtschenstock, culminating at 2,441 m. The highest point of the lakes drainage basin is the Tödi (3,614 m).</p><br>
<p>The lake provided the inspiration for a solo piano piece by Hungarian romantic composer Franz Liszt, called Au lac de Wallenstadt. The piece is part of a collection of solo piano works inspired by the composer&#39;s travels in 1830s Switzerland.</p><br>
<p>Timnath-heres or Timnath-serah  was the town given by the Israelites to Joshua according to the Hebrew Bible. He requested it and the people gave it to him "at the order of the Lord". He built up the town and lived in it.</p><br>
<p>According to the Septuagint version of the Book of Joshua, Joshua placed there "the stone knives, with which he had circumcised the children of Israel".</p><br>
<p>On his death, he was buried there. Jewish tradition also places the tomb of Caleb there.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The town was located in the mountainous region of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash. Some identify the place with the Palestinian village of Kifl Hares, located northwest of Ariel and 6 kilometres west of Salfit in the West Bank; sherds from the Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine/Umayyad, Crusader/Ayyubid and Mamluk eras have been found there.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In and, the town is called Timnath-serah, whereas in it is named as Timnath-heres.</p><br>
<p>The name "Timnath-serah" signifies in Hebrew an "extra portion" or "portion of abundance". Similarly, the name "Timnath-heres" means "portion of the sun". In the book of Joshua Chapter 24, verse 30; it is written in thirteen different published editions of the Old Testament as Timnath-Heres or some variation of it where the second word begins with an h, or H and ends in s, either with or without the intermediate dash. The inversion of "serah" to make "heres", as sometimes means sun, as in; some Jews observe, the name signifies the figure of the sun, the Jews say was put on his monument, in commemoration of the miracle of the sun standing still for him.</p><br>
<p>In the Talmud the town is mentioned in Bava Batra 122b, where "heres" is translated as "earthenware," in reference to fruits in the area being as dry as earthenware prior to the arrival of Joshua. The words inversion, "serah" is defined as "rotting," that after Joshuas arrival, the fruits became so juicy that they could quickly rot.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Ghetto or Ghetto of Rome, , was a Jewish ghetto established in 1555 in the Rione SantAngelo, in Rome, Italy, in the area surrounded by present-day Via del Portico dOttavia, Lungotevere dei Cenci, Via del Progresso and Via di Santa Maria del Pianto, close to the River Tiber and the Theatre of Marcellus. With the exception of brief periods under Napoleon from 1808 to 1815 and under the Roman Republics of 1798-99 and 1849, the ghetto of Rome was controlled by the papacy until the capture of Rome in 1870.</p><br>
<h2>Creation</h2><br>
<p>The Roman Ghetto was established as a result of Papal bull Cum nimis absurdum, promulgated by Pope Paul IV on 14 July 1555. The bull also required the Jews of Rome, which had existed as a community since before Christian times and which numbered about 2,000 at the time, to live in the ghetto. The ghetto was a walled quarter with its gates locked at night. The wall was built under the direction of the architect Giovanni Sallustio Peruzzi. The cost of the walls construction, 300 Roman scudi, had to be paid by the Jewish community. The area of Rome chosen for the ghetto was one of the most undesirable quarters of the city, subject to constant flooding by the Tiber River, but where Jews amounted already to 80% of the population. At the time of its founding, the area was a trapezoid whose bases (parallel to the river) measured respectively 270 m (near the Tiber) and 180 m, and whose sides was about 150 m long. The wall started from Ponte Fabricio reaching the Portico dOttavia; from there it run along todays Via del Portico dOttavia (not including the ancient fish market (La Pescheria); at Piazza Giudea (which was cut in two) it bent again running along Vicolo Cenci (today Via del Progresso) until it reached the Tiber again. The total area amounted to three hectares. At the time of Sixtus V (late 1580s), roughly 3,500 inhabitants were living in inhuman conditions.</p><br>
<p>The bull also revoked all the rights of the Jewish community and imposed on Jews a variety of new restrictions such as prohibition on property ownership and practising medicine on Christians and compulsory Catholic sermons on the Jewish sabbath.</p><br>
<p>However, the ghetto was welcomed by some Jews who thought that its walls would protect the small Jewish community from possible attacks by Christian mobs and from the drain which must follow from assimilation, at the same time enabling Jewish religious customs to be observed without interference.</p><br>
<p>Jews were not allowed to own any property, even in the ghetto. Christian owners of houses in the ghetto could keep their property but, because of the jus gazzagà (right of possession) they could neither evict the Jews nor raise rents.</p><br>
<p>Gates were added as the ghetto was successively enlarged. Initially, there were two gates in the wall. The number increased to three in the 16th century and under Sixtus V to five, and finally, during the 19th century to eight. The gates were opened at dawn and closed every night, one hour after sunset between November and Easter, and two hours at other times. The area contained hardly any noteworthy buildings. The only important square — Piazza Giudea — was divided in two parts by the wall. All the churches which stood in the ghetto were deconsecrated and demolished soon after its construction.</p><br>
<p>In common with many other Italian ghettoes, the ghetto of Rome was not initially so called, but was variously referred to in documents as serraglio degli Ebrei or claustro degli Ebrei, both meaning "enclosure of the Hebrews". Various forms of the word ghetto came into use in the late 16th century. The modern Roman Jewish usage is ghétte.</p><br>
<h2>Life in the ghetto</h2><br>
<p>Life in the Roman Ghetto was one of crushing poverty, due to the severe restrictions placed upon the occupations that Jews were allowed to perform. Roman Jews were allowed to work only at unskilled jobs, such as ragmen, secondhand dealers or fish mongers. They were permitted to be pawnbrokers (which had been prohibited to Christians); and this activity excited the hatred of many Christians against them.</p><br>
<p>In the lottery game, they were allowed to bet only on low numbers (from 1 through 30), and all belonging to the same group of 10. In case of a draw of five numbers of that kind, the Romans said that on that day in the ghetto there was taking place a great feast.</p><br>
<p>When Jews went outside the ghetto, the men had to wear a yellow cloth (the "sciamanno"), and the women a yellow veil (the same color worn by prostitutes). During the feasts they had to amuse the Christians, competing in humiliating games. They had to run naked, with a rope around the neck, or with their legs closed into sacks. Sometimes they were also ridden by soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Jews had to petition annually for permission to live there. They paid a yearly tax for the privilege. Jews of Rome were required to swear yearly loyalty to the Pope at the Arch of Titus, which celebrates the Roman sack of Jerusalem of 70 CE. Each year, on the Campidoglio, the Rabbi had to pay homage to the chief of the city councillors ("Caporione"), receiving by him in exchange for it a kick to his bottom. This "ceremony" meant that the Jewish community had been allowed to stay one more year in Rome.</p><br>
<p>Every Saturday, the Jewish community was forced to hear compulsory sermons in front of the small church of San Gregorio a Ponte Quattro Capi, just outside the wall.</p><br>
<p>At the time of its construction, in the ghetto – as almost everywhere in Rome – there was no fresh water. However, some years later the Popes built several fountains in the rione. One fountain, designed by Giacomo della Porta, was to be placed in the Piazza Giudea, the site of a market, inside the ghetto, but Muzio Mattei used his influence to have the fountain, the Fontana delle Tartarughe (Turtle Fountain) located in the Piazza Mattei, in front of his residence.</p><br>
<p>As the Jewish community inside the ghetto grew, there was severe overcrowding. Since the area could not expand horizontally, the Jews built vertical additions to their houses, which blocked the sun from reaching the already dank and narrow streets.</p><br>
<p>The great number of people living in such a small area, together with the poverty of the population, caused terrible hygienic conditions. The district, lying very low and near the Tiber, was often flooded. During the plague of 1656, 800 of 4,000 inhabitants died because of the epidemic. Sant&#39;Angelo, which was the rione with the smallest area, was also, because of the presence of the Ghetto, the one having the highest population density!</p><br>
<h2>Abolition</h2><br>
<p>When the Roman Republic was formed in 1798 and took over the Papal States, it annulled the requirement for Jews to live only in the ghetto; and a Tree of Liberty was planted in Piazza delle Cinque Scole ("Piazza of the Five Synagogues"). However, when the Papal States were restored in 1799, the ghetto was reestablished and Jews who had left were compelled to return to the ghetto.</p><br>
<p>On 17 April 1847 a group of young men from Trastevere broke open the gates of the Ghetto after they had been closed for the night. In 1848, at the beginning of his pontificate, Pius IX permitted Jews to live outside the ghetto. However, after returning from exile in 1850, following the crushing of the Roman Republic, which made strong anti-Church measures, the Pope issued a series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the ghetto. The Jewish head tax was abolished in 1850.</p><br>
<p>The Papal States ceased to exist on 20 September 1870 when they were incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy. With this the requirement that Jews live in the Ghetto came to an end. The ghetto walls were torn down in 1888 and the ghetto was almost completely demolished. On the resulting area the new Synagogue of Rome and apartment buildings were erected.</p><br>
<p>The Roman Ghetto was the last remaining ghetto in Western Europe until ghettos were reintroduced by Nazi Germany in the 1930s.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Due to the three hundred plus years of isolation from the rest of the city, the Jews of the Roman Ghetto developed their own dialect, known as Giudeo-romanesco, which differs from the dialect of the rest of the city in its preservation of 16th-century dialectical forms and its liberal use of romanized Hebrew words.</p><br>
<p>Today, the district of the former Ghetto is the home of the Synagogue of Rome. There is one remaining piece of the Ghetto wall, which was built into the wall of one of the courtyards off the Piazza delle Cinque Scole.</p><br>
<p>Aspendos or Aspendus  was an ancient Greco-Roman city in Antalya province of Turkey. The site is located 7 km northeast of central Serik.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Aspendos was an ancient city in Pamphylia, Asia Minor, located about 40 km east of the modern city of Antalya, Turkey. It was situated on the Eurymedon River about 16 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea; it shared a border with, and was hostile to, Side.</p><br>
<p>Some scholars associate the city&#39;s name with "Azatiwadaya". The known city of that name was founded by Azatiwada of Quwê on his eastern frontier, at Karatepe. According to later tradition, Aspendos was founded rather earlier by Greeks who may have come from Argos.</p><br>
<p>The wide range of its coinage throughout the ancient world indicates that, in the 5th century BC, Aspendos had become the most important city in Pamphylia. At that time the Eurymedon River was navigable as far as Aspendos, and the city derived great wealth from a trade in salt, oil and wool.</p><br>
<p>Aspendos did not play an important role in antiquity as a political force. Its political history during the colonisation period corresponded to the currents of the Pamphylian region. Within this trend, after the colonial period, it remained for a time under Lycian hegemony. In 546 BC it came under Persian domination. The fact that the city continued to mint coins in its own name, however, indicates that it had a great deal of freedom even under the Persians.</p><br>
<p>Circa 465 BCE Cimon led an Athenian navy against a Persian navy in the Battle of the Eurymedon, and destroyed it. Aspendos then became a member of the Delian League.</p><br>
<p>The Persians captured the city again in 411 BC and used it as a base. In 389 BC Thrasybulus of Athens, in an effort to regain some of the prestige that city had lost in the Peloponnesian Wars, anchored off the coast of Aspendos in an effort to secure its surrender. Hoping to avoid a new war, the people of Aspendos collected money among themselves and gave it to the commander, entreating him to retreat without causing any damage. Even though he took the money, he had his men trample all the crops in the fields. Enraged, the Aspendians stabbed and killed Thrasybulus in his tent.</p><br>
<p>When Alexander the Great marched into Aspendos in 333 BC after capturing Perge, the citizens sent envoys asking him not to garrison soldiers there. He agreed, provided he would be given the taxes and horses that they had formerly paid as tribute to the Persian king. After reaching this agreement Alexander went to Side, leaving a garrison there on the city&#39;s surrender. Going back through Sillyon, he learned that the Aspendians had failed to ratify the agreement their envoys had proposed and were preparing to defend themselves. Alexander marched to the city immediately. When they saw Alexander returning with his troops, the Aspendians, who had retreated to their acropolis, again sent envoys to sue for peace. This time, however, they had to agree to very harsh terms; a Macedonian garrison would remain in the city and 100 gold talents as well as 4,000 horses would be given in tax annually.</p><br>
<p>In 190 BC the city surrendered to the Romans, who later pillaged its artistic treasures. Toward the end of the Roman period the city began a decline that continued throughout Byzantine times.</p><br>
<h2>Greek and Roman structures</h2><br>
<p>Aspendos is known for having the best-preserved theatre of antiquity. With a diameter of 96 metres (315 ft), the theatre provided seating for 12,000.</p><br>
<p>The theatre was built in 155 by the Greek architect Zenon, a native of the city. It was periodically repaired by the Seljuqs, who used it as a caravanserai, and in the 13th century the stage building was converted into a palace by the Seljuqs of Rum.</p><br>
<p>In order to keep with Hellenistic traditions, a small part of the theatre was built so that it leaned against the hill where the Citadel (Acropolis) stood, while the remainder was built on vaulted arches. The high stage served to seemingly isolate the audience from the rest of the world. The scaenae frons or backdrop, has remained intact. The 8.1 metre (27 ft) sloping reflective wooden ceiling over the stage has been lost over time. Post holes for 58 masts are found in the upper level of the theatre. These masts supported a velarium or awning that could be pulled over the audience to provide shade.</p><br>
<p>The Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival offers an annual season of productions in the theatre in the spring and early summer.</p><br>
<p>Nearby stand the remains of a basilica, agora, nymphaeum and 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) of a Roman aqueduct. The Roman Eurymedon Bridge, reconstructed in the 13th century, is also in the vicinity.</p><br>
<h2>Coinage</h2><br>
<p>City/Region: Pamphylia, Aspendos; Denomination: AR Stater; Composition: Silver Date: 370-333 BC; Obverse: Olympic games-type scene: two wrestlers grappling, the letters delta and alpha between their legs; Reverse: ΕΣΤΕΔΙΙΥΣ, Olympic games-type scene: Slinger, wearing short chiton, discharging sling to right, triskeles on right with feet clockwise; Size: 23.6mm, 10.851g; Reference: SNG Cop 233; SNG France 87</p><br>
<p>Aspendos was one of the earliest cities to mint coins. It began issuing coinage around 500 BC, first staters and later drachmas; "the hoplite on the obverse represents the soldiery for which Aspendus was famous in antiquity," the reverse frequently depicts a triskelion. The legend appears on early coins as the abbreviation ΕΣ or ΕΣΤϜΕ; later coinage has ΕΣΤϜΕΔΙΙΥΣ, the adjective from the citys local (Pamphylian) name Estwedus. The citys numismatic history extends from archaic Greek to late Roman times.</p><br>
<h2>Bishopric</h2><br>
<p>The Christian bishopric of Aspendus was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Side, the capital of the Roman province of Pamphylia Prima, to which Aspendus belonged. Of its bishops, the names of four are recorded in extant documents: Domnus was at the First Council of Nicaea in 425, Tribonianus at the Council of Ephesus in 431, Timotheus at the 448 synod held by Flavian of Constantinople, which condemned Eutyches, and at the Robber Council of Ephesus held the same year, and Leo at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.</p><br>
<p>No longer a residential bishopric, Aspendus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<h2>Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival</h2><br>
<p>The theatre hosts the annual Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival organized by Turkish State Opera and Ballet since 1994, with international participation of opera and ballet companies and an audience of about 10,000.</p><br>
<p>Dalida held her last concert there on 28 April 1987.</p><br>
<p>The Timor Sea  is a relatively shallow sea bounded to the north by the island of Timor, to the east by the Arafura Sea, to the west of Australia.</p><br>
<p>The sea contains a number of reefs, uninhabited islands and significant hydrocarbon reserves. International disputes emerged after the reserves were discovered resulting in the signing of the Timor Sea Treaty.</p><br>
<p>The Timor Sea was hit by the worst oil spill for 25 years in 2009.</p><br>
<p>It is possible that Australia&#39;s first inhabitants crossed the Timor Sea from Indonesia at a time when sea levels were lower.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The waters to the east are known as the Arafura Sea. The Timor Sea is adjacent to three substantial inlets on the north Australian coast, the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, Beagle Gulf and the Van Diemen Gulf. The Australian city of Darwin is the only large city to adjoin the sea. The small town of Wyndham is located on the west arm of Cambridge Gulf, an inlet of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf.</p><br>
<p>Rivers that enter the Timor Sea from the Northern Territory include Fish River, King River, Dry River, Victoria River and the Alligator Rivers. Rivers in the Kimberley region that flow into the Timor Sea include the Ord River, Forrest River, Pentecost River and Durack River.</p><br>
<p>The sea is about 480 km (300 statute miles) wide, covering an area of about 610,000 km². (235,000 square miles). Its deepest point is the Timor Trough (which some geologists consider is the south-eastern extension of the Java Trench, but others view as a foreland trough to the Timor Island "mountain range"), located in the northern part of the sea, which reaches a depth of 3,300 m (10,800 ft). The remainder of the sea is much shallower, much of it averaging less than 200 m (650 ft) deep, as it overlies the Sahul Shelf, part of the Australian continental shelf.</p><br>
<p>The Big Bank Shoals is an area on the sloping seabed between the continental shelf and the Timor Trough where a number of submerged banks are located. The ecosystem of the shoals is significantly different to the deeper waters surrounding them. In May 2010, it was announced that a crater about 50 km wide has been discovered on the seabed of the Timor Sea.</p><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Timor Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the North The Southeastern limit of the Savu Sea By a line from the Southwest point of Timor to the Northeast point of Roti, through this island to its Southwest point the Southeastern coast of Timor and the Southern limit of the Banda Sea A line from Tanjong Aro Oesoe, through Sermata to Tanjong Njadora the Southeast point of Lakov ({{coord|8|16|S|128|14|E|display=inline}}) along the South coasts of Lakov, Moa and Leti Islands to Tanjong Toet Pateh, the West point of Leti, thence a line to Tanjong Sewirawa the Eastern extremity of Timor.</p><br>
<p>On the East. The Western limit of the Arafura Sea A line from Cape Don to Tanjong Aro Oesoe, the Southern point of Selaroe (Tanimbar Islands).</p><br>
<p>On the South. The North coast of Australia from Cape Don to Cape Londonderry ({{coord|13|47|S|126|55|E|display=inline}}).</p><br>
<p>On the West. A line from Cape Londonderry to the Southwest point of Roti Island</p><br>
<p>({{coord|10|56|S|122|48|E|display=inline}}).</p><br>
<h3>Meteorology</h3><br>
<p>Many tropical storms and cyclones originate or pass through the Timor Sea. In February 2005, Tropical Cyclone Vivienne disrupted oil and gas production facilities in the area, and the next month, Severe Tropical Cyclone Willy interrupted production. . Petroleum production facilities are designed to withstand the effects of cyclones, although as a safety precaution production is often reduced or temporarily halted and workers evacuated by helicopter to the mainland - usually to Darwin or Dili.</p><br>
<h3>Reefs and islands</h3><br>
<p>A number of significant islands are located in the sea, notably Melville Island, part of the Tiwi Islands, off Australia and the Australian-governed Ashmore and Cartier Islands. It is thought that early humans reached Australia by "island-hopping" across the Timor Sea.</p><br>
<p>Scott and Seringapatam Reefs formed in the area and to the west on the same underwater platform is the Rowley Shoals.</p><br>
<h2>Timor Current</h2><br>
<p>The Timor Current is an oceanic current that runs south-west in the Timor Sea between the Indonesia archipelago and Australia. It is a major contributor to the Indonesian Throughflow that transports water from the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrocarbon reserves</h2><br>
<p>Beneath the Timor Sea lie considerable reserves of oil and gas. A number of offshore petroleum projects are in operation and there is considerable exploration activity either underway and numerous proposed projects. A gas pipeline crosses the Timor Sea from the Joint Petroleum Development Area to Wickham Point near Darwin.</p><br>
<p>The Timor Sea was the location for Australia&#39;s largest oil spill when the Montara oil field leaked oil, natural gas and condensate from 21 August to 3 November 2009. During the spill 400 barrels of oil leaked each day. The Montara Commission of Inquiry placed blame on the Thai company PTTEP, owner of the wells.</p><br>
<h3>Bayu-Undan project</h3><br>
<p>The largest petroleum project in operation in the Timor Sea is the Bayu-Undan project operated by ConocoPhillips. The Bayu-Undan field is located approximately 500 km north-west of Darwin. Production commenced in 2004 as a gas recycle project - with liquids (condensate, propane and butane) being stripped from the raw production stream and exported. Gas was pumped back down into the reservoir. At around the same time, construction commenced on a 500 km subsea natural gas pipeline connecting the Bayu-Undan processing facility to a liquefied natural gas plant situated at Wickham Point in Darwin harbour. Since the completion of the pipeline and the Darwin LNG plant in 2005, gas produced offshore at Bayu-Undan is now transported to the Darwin plant where it is converted into a liquid and transported to Japan under long-term sales contracts. Timor-Leste has made, as of 2017, over $18 billion from Bayu-Undan since production began; however, it is predicted its reserves will be exhausted by 2023.</p><br>
<h3>Other projects</h3><br>
<p>AED Oil owns the large oil project at Puffin oilfield and Woodside Petroleum is producing oil at the Laminaria oilfield. The Greater Sunrise gas field, discovered in 1974, is one of the largest in the area and is expected to earn East Timor several billion dollars in royalty revenues. Woodside Petroleum plans to process gas from Greater Sunrise via a floating platform, however Xanana Gusmão, East Timor&#39;s Prime Minister opposes this plan and instead wants the gas to go to Dili via a pipeline for processing.</p><br>
<h2>Territorial dispute</h2><br>
<p>Since discovery of petroleum in the Timor Sea in the 1970s, there have been disputes surrounding rights to ownership and exploitation of the resources situated in a part of the Timor Sea known as the Timor Gap, which is the area of the Timor Sea which lies outside the territorial boundaries of the nations to the north and south of the Timor Sea. These disagreements initially involved Australia and Indonesia, although a resolution was eventually reached in the form of the Timor Gap Treaty. After declaration of East Timor&#39;s nationhood in 1999, the terms of the Timor Gap Treaty were abandoned and negotiations commenced between Australia and East Timor, culminating in the Timor Sea Treaty.</p><br>
<p>Australia&#39;s territorial claim extends to the bathymetric axis (the line of greatest sea-bed depth) at the Timor Trough. It overlaps East Timor&#39;s own territorial claim, which follows the former colonial power Portugal and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in claiming that the dividing line should be midway between the two countries.</p><br>
<p>It was revealed in 2013 that the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) planted listening devices to listen to East Timor during negotiations over the Greater Sunrise oil and gasfields. This is known as the Australia–East Timor spying scandal.</p><br>
<h2>Timor Sea Treaty</h2><br>
<p>The Timor Sea Treaty, which was signed on the 20 May 2002, led to the establishment of the Timor Sea Designated Authority (TSDA). This organisation is responsible for the administration of all petroleum-related activities in a part of the Timor Sea known as the Joint Petroleum Development Area (JPDA). The treaty was ratified in February 2007.</p><br>
<p>Under the terms of the treaty, royalties on petroleum production in the JPDA are split in a 90:10 ratio between East Timor and Australia. It has been criticised because the treaty did not finalise the maritime boundary between East Timor and Australia.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<p>During the 1940s the Japanese navy conducted air raids on Australia from ships in the Timor Sea. On the 19 February 1942 the Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga with other vessels, launched air strikes against Darwin, Australia, sinking nine ships, including the USS Peary. This bombing marked the beginning of the Battle of Timor in the Pacific theatre of World War II.</p><br>
<p>The Celtic Sea  is the area of the Atlantic Ocean off the south coast of Ireland bounded to the east by Saint George&#39;s Channel; other limits include the Bristol Channel, the English Channel, and the Bay of Biscay, as well as adjacent portions of Wales, Cornwall, Devon, and Brittany. The southern and western boundaries are delimited by the continental shelf, which drops away sharply. The Isles of Scilly are an archipelago of small islands in the sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Celtic Sea takes its name from the Celtic heritage of the bounding lands to the north and east.</p><br>
<p>The name was first proposed by E.W.L. Holt at a 1921 meeting in Dublin of fisheries experts from England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland and France. It was adopted by marine biologists and oceanographers, and later by petroleum exploration firms.</p><br>
<p>It is named in a 1963 British atlas,</p><br>
<p>but a 1972 article states "what British maps call the Western Approaches, and what the oil industry calls the Celtic Sea certainly the residents on the western coast don&#39;t refer to it as such."</p><br>
<h2>Limits</h2><br>
<p>There are no land features to divide the Celtic Sea from the open Atlantic Ocean to the south and west. For these limits, Holt suggested the 200 fathom (366 m) marine contour and the island of Ushant off the tip of Brittany.</p><br>
<p>The definition approved by 1974 by the UK Hydrographer of the Navy for use in Admiralty Charts was "bounded roughly by lines joining Ushant, Lands End, Hartland Point, Lundy Island, St. Govans Head and Rosslare, thence following the Irish coast south to Mizen Head and then along the 200-metre isobath to approximately the latitude of Ushant."</p><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Celtic Sea as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the North. The Southern limit of the Irish Sea a line joining St David&#39;s Head to Carnsore Point, the South coast of Ireland, thence from Mizen Head a line drawn to a position {{coord|51|0|N|11|30|W|display=inline}}.</p><br>
<p>On the West and South. A line from the position {{coord|51|0|N|11|30|W|display=inline}} South to 49°N, thence to latitude 46°30&#39;N on the Western limit of the Bay of Biscay a line joining Cape Ortegal to Penmarch Point, thence along that line to Penmarch Point.</p><br>
<p>On the East. The Western limit of the English Channel a line joining Île Vierge to Land&#39;s End and the Western limit of the Bristol Channel a line joining Hartland Point to St. Govan&#39;s Head.</p><br>
<h2>Seabed</h2><br>
<p>The seabed under the Celtic Sea is called the Celtic Shelf, part of the continental shelf of Europe. The northeast portion has a depth of between 90m and 100m, increasing towards Saint George&#39;s Channel. In the opposite direction, sand ridges pointing southwest have a similar height, separated by troughs approximately 50m deeper. These ridges were formed by tidal effects when the sea level was lower. South of 50° the topography is more irregular.</p><br>
<p>Oil and gas exploration in the Celtic Sea has had limited commercial success. The Kinsale Head gas field supplied much of the Republic of Ireland in the 1980s and 1990s.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology of the Celtic Sea</h2><br>
<p>The Celtic Sea has a rich fishery with total annual catches of 1.8 million tonnes as of 2007.</p><br>
<p>Four cetacean species occur frequently in the area: minke whale, bottlenose dolphin, short-beaked common dolphin and harbor porpoise. Formerly it held an abundance of marine mammals.</p><br>
<p>Eldfell is a volcanic cone just over 200 m high on the Icelandic island of Heimaey. It formed in a volcanic eruption, which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey, in the Westman Islands, on 23 January 1973. The name means Hill of Fire in Icelandic.</p><br>
<p>The eruption caused a major crisis for the island and nearly led to its permanent evacuation. Volcanic ash fell over most of the island, destroying around 400 homes, and a lava flow threatened to close off the harbour, the island&#39;s main income source via its fishing fleet. An operation was mounted to cool the advancing lava flow by pumping sea water onto it, which was successful in preventing the loss of the harbour.</p><br>
<p>After the eruption, the islanders used heat from the cooling lava flows to provide hot water and to generate electricity. They also used some of the extensive tephra, fall-out of airborne volcanic material to extend the runway at the island&#39;s small airport and as landfill on which 200 new houses were built.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Iceland is a region of frequent volcanic activity, due to its location astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the North American and Eurasian Plates are moving apart, and also over the Iceland hotspot, which greatly enhances the volcanic activity. It is estimated that a third of all the basaltic lava erupted in the world in recorded history has been produced by Icelandic eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands) archipelago lies off the south coast of Iceland, and consists of several small islands, all formed by eruptions in the Holocene epoch. Heimaey, the largest island in the group and the only inhabited one, also contains some material from the Pleistocene era. The most prominent feature on Heimaey before 1973 was Helgafell, a 200 meters (650 ft) high volcanic cone formed in an eruption about 5,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The Vestmannaeyjar archipelago was settled in about 874 AD, originally by escaped Irish slaves belonging to Norse settlers on the mainland. These settlers gave the islands their name, Ireland being west of mainland Scandinavia. Although plagued by poor water supplies and piracy during much of its history, Heimaey became the most important centre of the Icelandic fishing industry, having one of the few good harbours on the southern side of the country, and being situated in very rich fishing grounds.</p><br>
<h2>The eruption begins</h2><br>
<p>At about 20:00 on 21 January 1973, a series of small tremors began to occur around Heimaey. They were too weak to be felt by the residents of the island, but a seismic station 60 km away, near the mainland, recorded over 100 large tremors between 01:00 and 03:00 on 22 January that appeared to be emanating from south of Heimaey. The tremors continued at a reduced rate until 11:00 that day, after which they stopped until 23:00 that evening. From 23:00 until 01:34 on 23 January, seven tremors were detected that grew shallower and more intense, while the epicenter moved closer to the town of Vestmannaeyjar.</p><br>
<p>The largest tremor measured 2.7 on the Richter scale.</p><br>
<p>Small tremors are very common at plate boundaries, and nothing here indicated that they heralded a major eruption. The onset of the eruption was therefore almost entirely unexpected. At about 01:55 on 23 January, a fissure opened up on the eastern side of the island, barely a kilometre away from the centre of the town of Heimaey, approximately 200 metres (650 ft) east of Kirkjubær (Church farm), where the island&#39;s church had once been located.</p><br>
<p>The fissure rapidly extended from 300 metres to a length of 2 km, crossing the island from one shore to the other. Submarine activity also occurred just offshore at the northern and southern ends of the fissure. Spectacular lava fountaining 50 to 150 metres high occurred along the whole fissure, which reached a maximum length of about 3 km during the first few hours of the eruption, but activity soon became concentrated on one vent, about 0.8 km north of the old volcanic cone of Helgafell and just outside the eastern edge of the town.</p><br>
<p>During the early days of the eruption, the rate of lava and tephra emission from the fissure was estimated to be 100 cubic metres per second (3,500 cubic feet per second), and within two days, the lava fountains had built a cinder cone over 100 metres (330 ft) high. The name initially given to the new volcano was Kirkjufell (Church Mountain), owing to its proximity to Kirkjubær. This name was not adopted by the official Icelandic place-naming committee, who chose Eldfell (Fire Mountain) instead, despite local opposition. The fountains’ Strombolian eruptions continued until 19 February, depositing thick tephra over the northern half of the island and adding to the cone until it was 200 metres (660 ft) high.</p><br>
<p>The eruption column that caused the air fall “occasionally rose to 9,000 metres (30,000 ft), or nearly to the tropopause”. Lava flows from the cone traveled north and east to produce a “continuously expanding lava delta” along the east coast of the island and into the harbor, where small explosions built up a diminutive island that was soon overtaken by the advancing delta.</p><br>
<p>The first lavas erupted by Eldfell had a mugearitic chemical composition but within a few weeks the volcano was erupting less fractionated lavas which had a hawaiitic composition.</p><br>
<p>By early May, the lava flow was between 10 yd and 23 yd in height. It averaged more than 40 yd and in some places was as much as 110 yd thick. The flow carried off large blocks from the main cone that had broken off, as well as volcanic bombs. "The viscosity of the lava fragments ejected by the blasts was, for basalt, relatively high. Very little spatter was produced and scoria bombs sometimes broke up explosively in flight (presumably due to rapid vesiculation), and by rapid impact on landing."</p><br>
<p>Volcanic gases were collected from several locations. Gases collected at sea along the submerged part of active eruptive fissure were dominantly carbon dioxide and gases from cooling submerged lava flows were about 70 percent hydrogen. (Richard & James, 1983) Poisonous gas was found at low areas on the eastern part of Vestmannaeyjar. A wall was constructed between the vent and town to divert the gas, and a long trench was excavated for the steam to escape. However, none of these measures were completely effective. (Richard & James, 1983)</p><br>
<h2>Evacuation</h2><br>
<p>In the early hours of the eruption, the Icelandic State Civil Defence Organisation evacuated the entire population of Heimaey, having previously developed evacuation plans for an emergency such as this. The evacuation was necessary because lava flows were already moving slowly into the eastern side of town, and the whole of the small island was threatened by the likelihood of heavy ash fall.</p><br>
<p>Because of severe storms in the days before the eruption, almost the entire fishing fleet was in the harbour, a stroke of luck which greatly assisted the organisation of the rapid evacuation. The population was alerted to the situation by fire engines sounding their sirens, and gathered by the harbour with just the small amount of possessions they were able to carry. The first boats left for Þorlákshöfn at about 02:30, just half an hour after the start of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>Most of the population left the island by boat. Fortunately, the lava flows and tephra fall did not at first affect the island&#39;s airstrip (Vestmannaeyjar Airport), and a few people who were unable to travel by boat were evacuated by air&mdash;primarily the elderly and patients from the hospital. Planes were sent from Reykjavík and Keflavik to help speed the process. Within six hours of the onset of the eruption, almost all of the 5,300 people of the island were safely on the mainland. A few people remained to carry out essential functions and to salvage belongings from threatened houses. Cattle, horses and sheep on the island were slaughtered. On the mainland, friends, relatives and strangers offered shelter and housing. By the end of the day, all 5,300 people were spread around cities and towns on the mainland.</p><br>
<h2>Destruction of houses, creation of land</h2><br>
<p>Houses close to the rift were soon destroyed by lava flows and tephra fall. A few days after the eruption began, the prevailing wind direction moved to the west, resulting in extensive tephra falls over the rest of the island, causing extensive property damage. Many houses were destroyed by the weight of the ash fall, but crews of volunteers working to clear the ash from roofs and board up windows saved many more. By the end of January, tephra covered most of the island, reaching 5 metres (16 ft) deep in places. Apart from falling ash, some houses were also burned down by fires caused by lava bombs, or overridden by advancing lava flows.</p><br>
<p>By early February, the heavy tephra fall had abated, but lava flows began to cause serious damage. Submarine activity just north of the fissure severed an electric power cable and a water pipeline which supplied electrical power and water from the Icelandic mainland, and lava began to flow towards the harbour, a situation which caused serious concerns - if the harbour was destroyed, the islands fishing industry would be devastated. By early May, about 300 buildings had been engulfed by lava flows or gutted by fire and 60-70 homes had been buried by tephra.(Richard & James, 1983) As Heimaey was responsible for some 3% of Icelands GNP, the effect on the whole country&#39;s economy would be significant. Efforts to prevent the loss of the harbour are described further below.</p><br>
<p>Lava flows also moved into the sea east of the island, creating new land that would eventually add over 2 km&sup2; to the island, and into the eastern parts of town, destroying several hundred houses. The flows were thick and blocky aā lava (Icelandic: apalhraun) flows, and covered the ground to average depths of about 40 metre (130 ft), reaching 100 metre (330 ft) thick in places. Later on in the eruption, a surge of lava destroyed one fish processing plant and damaged two others, and also demolished the town&#39;s power generating plant.</p><br>
<p>Despite the eruptions close proximity to the town and the extensive property damage, only one fatality could be attributed to the eruption - a man who had broken into a chemists store to acquire drugs was suffocated by toxic fumes. Carbon dioxide, with small amounts of poisonous gases, became concentrated in many buildings partially buried by tephra, and several other people were affected when entering these buildings.</p><br>
<p>Efforts to mitigate the hazards presented by the accumulation of poisonous gas included the building of a large tephra wall to divert gases away from the town, and the digging of a trench to channel away the CO2 (carbon dioxide). These defences were only partially effective, as they relied on the assumption that the gases were produced at the vent, and flowed into the town from there. It is believed that as least some of the CO2 originated deep within the volcanic conduit and percolated through older volcanic rocks, rising directly into the town.</p><br>
<h2>Lava-cooling operations</h2><br>
<p>The possibility of lava flows cutting off the harbour was the most significant threat facing the town. One contingency plan devised, should the harbour be closed off, was to cut through a low sand spit on the north side of the island to provide a new channel into the harbour, but it was hoped that if the lava flow could be slowed, this would not be necessary. Lava flows had been sprayed with water in attempts to slow them in Hawaii and on Mount Etna, but these had been rather small-scale operations with limited success. However, Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson carried out an experiment that proved that further advances of the lava could be impeded by prematurely solidifying the advancing lava-flow front.</p><br>
<p>The first attempt to slow the lava flow by spraying the leading edge with sea water began on 6 February, and although the volume of water being pumped on was rather small at 100 litres per second (26 US (liquid) gallons per second), the flow was noticeably affected. The lava changed as water poured on it. Before cooling, the flow of the lava was blocky, covered with volcanic bombs and was a reddish oxidised colour. After cooling, the surface became more jagged and was much more difficult to walk on, and the flow surface turned from black to grey. (Richard & James,1983) Water cooling of the lava was slow but efficient, with almost all the water converted to steam. Once the viability of lava cooling had been proven, efforts to halt the flows were increased.</p><br>
<p>The pumping capacity was increased in early March, when a large chunk of the crater wall broke away from the summit of Eldfell and began to be carried along the top of the lava flow towards the harbour. The chunk, dubbed Flakkarinn (The Wanderer), would have seriously threatened the viability of the harbour if it had reached it, and the dredging boat Sandey was brought in on 1 March to prevent its advance. Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson provided advice to the pumping crews on where to direct their efforts to most efficiently slow the flows. Eventually the Wanderer broke up into two pieces which both stopped approximately 100 metres (330 ft) from the harbour mouth.</p><br>
<p>The ensuing lava-cooling operations were the most ambitious that had ever been undertaken. The Sandey was able to spray up to 400 litres per second (105 US gallons per second) onto the advancing flow, and a network of pipes was laid on top of the lava to distribute the seawater over as wide an area as possible. Wooden supports for the pipes caught fire where the lava was hottest, and even aluminium supports melted, but the pipes themselves were prevented from melting by the cold seawater flowing through them. Up to 12,000 square metres (3 acres) of lava flow could be cooled at one time, with internal barriers then being created within the flow, which thickened and piled up upon itself.</p><br>
<p>The work involved in laying pipes over an active lava flow was highly dangerous, with low visibility due to the extensive emission of steam. Rough tracks were made onto the flow by bulldozing tephra, but these tracks quickly became very uneven and moved several metres a day. The pipelayers used bulldozers and walkie-talkies to advance through the steam to lay more pipes. The workers dubbed themselves The Suicide Squad, and managed to lay pipes up to 130 metres (430 ft) inward from the flow front, directly over the advance. Although several men sustained minor burns, no serious injuries were received.</p><br>
<p>By the end of March, a fifth of the town had been covered by lava flows, and increased pumping capacity was required. Thirty-two pumps, each with a capacity of up to 1000 litres per second (265 US gallons per second), were brought in from the United States. After these pumps began to cool the flow advancing towards the town, its movement slowed dramatically and soon stopped. Failure of pump shafts became a problem after a few weeks, probably because they were designed for pumping oil rather than water, and new and improved shafts had to be manufactured in Reykjavík and brought in.</p><br>
<p>One notable feature of the lava cooling operation was the deposit of large amounts of salt where seawater was sprayed onto the lava. Large expanses of flow became encrusted with extensive white deposits, and it was estimated that up to 220,000 tonnes (240,000 short tons) of salt was deposited in total.</p><br>
<p>Sigurgeirsson called these protective measures “undoubtedly the most extensive that have ever been used in a volcanic eruption” and said that “had it not been for the cooling, the lava tongue could be expected to…extend further along its direction of movement…for a whole month longer than it actually did. It failed by only about 100 meters to block the entrance to the harbor.”</p><br>
<p>The cooling operation ended on 10 July 1973, and approximately 8 million cubic yards of seawater were pumped. This eruption was a special case where the method used to control the lava was suited to local conditions. Firstly, the initial eruption was only 1100 yards from the centre of town and harbour. Next, the flow of lava was slow and allowing time to plan and carry out control. Thirdly, sea water was available in its nearby harbour and lastly, it was easy to move pipes and pump equipment as the transport system by sea and road was good. (Richard & James,1983) The entire operation cost a total of US$1,447,742 at the time.</p><br>
<p>The eruption made headlines around the world when it began, and was covered constantly by Icelandic news crews throughout. In Europe, the eruption was one of the biggest news items while it continued, competing for front page space with breakthroughs then being made in the Vietnam War peace talks in Paris. The efforts of the islanders to halt the lava flows received particular attention, with coverage in publications such as National Geographic.</p><br>
<p>The attention focused on the island as a result of the eruption led to a later upsurge in tourism once the eruption was over.</p><br>
<h2>The eruption dies down</h2><br>
<p>The volume of lava being emitted during the eruption fell steadily after the first few days. From its initial rate of 100 cubic metres per second (3500 cubic feet per second), the emission rate fell to about 60 cubic metres per second (2100 cubic feet per second) by 8 February, and just 10 cubic metres per second (350 cubic feet per second) by the middle of March. The decline was slower after that, but by the middle of April the flow rate had fallen to about 5 cubic metres per second (180 cubic feet per second).</p><br>
<p>Short-lived submarine activity was discovered by a fishing vessel on 26 May, about 4 km north-east of Heimaey and 1 km off the coast of the mainland. The eruption finally came to an end in early July, when flowing lava was no longer visible, although subsurface flows may have continued for a few days longer. Shortly before the end of the eruption, a tiltmeter 1150 metres (3750 ft) from the crater which had been measuring ground deformation throughout the eruption detected subsidence towards the crater, implying that the shallow magma chamber which had fed the eruption was emptying out.</p><br>
<p>In total, the volume of lava and tephra emitted during the five-month eruption was estimated to be about 0.25 of a cubic kilometre (0.06 of a cubic mile). About 2.5 km&sup2; of new land was added to the island, increasing its pre-eruption area by some 20%. In the end, the harbour entrance was narrowed considerably but not closed off, and the new lava flow acted as a breakwater, improving the shelter afforded by the harbour. Flakkarinn rafted several hundred metres towards the harbour along the top of the lava flow, but came to a halt well away from the water&#39;s edge.</p><br>
<h2>Heimaey since the eruption</h2><br>
<p>By the end of 1975, the population of the Westman Islands had returned to roughly 85% of its pre-eruption level. 42% among those with destroyed houses did not return before the end of 1975, while it was only 27% among those whose houses were not destroyed. By 1974, fishing companies in the Westman Islands were back to normal production levels. Counter-intuitively, the new lava field actually improved the harbour in Westman Islands. Also counter-intuitive, the forced displacement had a large positive causal effect on both the earnings and education for those who were younger than 25 years old at the time of the eruption.</p><br>
<p>The insides of lava flows can remain at temperatures of several hundred degrees for many years due to the very low thermal conductivity of rock. Following the end of the eruption, scientists began to assess the feasibility of extracting geothermal heat from the gradually cooling flows. Experimental heating systems were soon devised, and by 1974 the first house was connected. The scheme was extended to several more houses and the hospital, and in 1979 construction began of four larger plants to extract heat from the flows. Each plant extracted energy from a square 100 metres (330 ft) on each side, by percolating water down into the hot parts and collecting the resulting steam. Up to 40 megawatts (MW) of power could be generated by the plants, which also then supplied hot water to nearly every house on the island.</p><br>
<p>The tephra produced by the eruption was used to extend the runways at the islands small airport, and also as landfill on which 200 new homes were built. By mid-1974, about half the pre-eruption population had returned to the island, and by March 1975, about 80% had returned. The recovery and reconstruction of Heimaey was paid for by all Icelanders via a hypothecated sales tax, as well as through international aid totalling US$ 2.1 million primarily from Denmark but with substantial contributions from the United States and several international organisations. With the harbour improved by the new lava breakwater, the fishing industry regained its former vigour and the island today remains the most important fishing centre in the nation, as over a third of Icelands total fish catch is from this harbour.</p><br>
<p>By the end of the eruption, Eldfell stood about 220 metres (720 ft) above sea level. Since then, its height has dropped by 18 to 20 metres (60 to 65 feet), due to slumping and compacting of the unconsolidated gravelly tephra as well as wind erosion. The islanders have planted grass around the lower slopes of the otherwise bare hill, to stabilise it against further erosion, and eventually it is expected that most of the volcano will be covered by grass, as neighbouring Helgafell is. Eldfell is one of the best known volcanic eruptions in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Pompton River is a tributary of the Passaic River, approximately 8 mi  long, in northern New Jersey in the United States.</p><br>
<p>It is formed south of the borough of Pompton Lakes by the confluence of the Ramapo and Pequannock rivers. It flows south, passing between Lincoln Park and Pequannock Township (to the west) and Wayne (to the east). It enters the Passaic north of Fairfield. Its watershed encompasses section of the Ramapo Mountains along the New York-New Jersey border in the rural suburbs of New York City. It is the main tributary by volume of the Passaic. A portion of the river&#39;s water is diverted to the nearby Wanaque Reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>* Pequannock River</p><br>
<p>* Ramapo River</p><br>
<p>The Rockaway River is a tributary of the Passaic River, approximately 35 mi  long, in northern New Jersey in the United States. The upper course of the river flows through a wooded mountainous valley, whereas the lower course flows through the populated New Jersey suburbs and former industrial area west of New York City. It drains an area of approximately 130 sq mi .</p><br>
<p>It rises at the eastern edge of Sussex County and within a few hundred yards enters Morris County, in the Highlands, along the northwestern slope of Green Pond Mountain south of Oak Ridge. It flows SSW, in a direct course between in the valley between the mountain ridges. Northeast of Wharton it emerges from the mountains and flows generally east in a meandering course, past Wharton, Dover (where it enters a concrete channel), Rockaway, Denville and Boonton, where it passes through the Boonton Gorge. The gorge begins with the impressive 25 foot Boonton Falls. It continues for a little over 1 mile (1.6 km) dropping around 120 ft/mi through nearly continuous class 3 and 4 whitewater. On the south side of Boonton it is impounded to form the Boonton Reservoir. Downstream from the reservoir dam it flows south, through Lake Hiawatha, where the river splits and joins again. It then flows through Parsippany and into Hatfield Swamp, where it is joined by the Whippany River and then merges with the Passaic River.</p><br>
<p>Beaver brook is a stream that flows through a swamp and enters the Rockaway River in Denville.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century the river connected to the Morris Canal near Wharton and served as an industrial transportation link for shipping coal and iron ore between Pennsylvania and New York City. The communities of Wharton, Dover, and Boonton were important iron processing towns in the early 19th century, with a large concentration of forges and mills. The significant pollution problem in the lower course of the river has been somewhat alleviated by legislation and by the nearly complete abandonment of heavy industry in the area.</p><br>
<p>The isolated upper course of the river is a popular region site for smallmouth bass fishing.</p><br>
<p>The New Jersey Fish and Game stocks the river in many sections with rainbow and brown trout. Many fisherman find enjoyment in fishing the river.</p><br>
<p>The river is shown in the movie, The Station Agent, and also appears in one episode of The Sopranos.</p><br>
<h2>Flooding</h2><br>
<p>The Rockaway River has the potential to cause flooding in the area of Denville that is north of the central business district, including residential areas along the river. During the massive flooding following Hurricane Irene in August 2011, the Rockaway River crested approx. 6 feet above its previous record flood level. The flooding was considered to be a 500 year event. The downtown Denville business district and surrounding residential areas were flooded, by in some places up to 8 feet of water. As silt has accumulated in the river basin, the average depth of the river has steadily decreased. Since the flooding of Irene there has been no problems reported with the river overreaching its banks. Discussions are ongoing with the Township of Denville and the Army Corp of Engineers as to a solution, including the control of dams upstream which may have contributed to the downtown flooding.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Den Brook</p><br>
<p>Whippany River</p><br>
<p>The Musconetcong River is a 45.7 mi tributary of the Delaware River in northwestern New Jersey in the United States. It flows through the rural mountainous country of northwestern New Jersey. Part of it is a National Wild and Scenic River.</p><br>
<p>It rises out of Lake Hopatcong, on the border between Sussex and Morris counties. It flows through Lake Musconetcong, then flows southwest, past Stephensburg and New Hampton, passing south of Washington then along the southeastern side of the Pohatcong Mountain ridge. It joins the Delaware across from Riegelsville, Pennsylvania, approximately 10 mi (16 km) south of Phillipsburg.</p><br>
<p>The river does not flow through any large population center and has been the site of relatively little industrial development throughout its history. In the 18th century, the surrounding hills were largely deforested as a source of charcoal for the iron industry in the surrounding region. The local industry declined by the middle of the 19th century after the building of the former Morris Canal, the course of which ran along the upper river, to bring coal from Pennsylvania to northern New Jersey. After the demise of the canal from the introduction of railroads in the late 19th century, the dam pools along the river that supplied the canal became the site of a popular summer cottage industry. Silted remnants of the pools, as well as the remnants of the canal itself, can still be seen along the river.</p><br>
<p>Human habitation in the Musconetcong Valley can be traced back approximately 12,000 years to the end of the last ice age. The Plenge Site along the lower river in Warren County was the first of only two major Paleo-Indian archaeological site excavations in New Jersey, and is considered one of the most significant in the northeastern United States.</p><br>
<p>The USGS stream flow gauge at Bloomsbury has the river&#39;s flows recorded from as far back as 1904. The average flow over the time recorded for the gauge at Bloomsbury is approximately 244 cfs. Record flows of the river were recorded in 2011 as result of Hurricane Irene.</p><br>
<p>According to an urban legend, the river is also home to a creature known as the Musconetcong River Mantis Man, a somewhat humanoid, somewhat insect-like creature.</p><br>
<p>Flinders Island, the largest island in the Furneaux Group, is a 1,367 km&sup2; island located in the Bass Strait, northeast of the island of Tasmania. Flinders Island is part of the state of Tasmania, Australia, and is situated 54 km from Cape Portland and it is located on 40° south, a zone known as the Roaring Forties.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Flinders Island was first inhabited at least 35,000 years ago, when people made their way from Australia across the then-land bridge which is now Bass Strait. A population remained until about 4,500 years ago, succumbing to thirst and hunger following an acute El Niño climate shift.</p><br>
<h3>European discovery</h3><br>
<p>Some of the south-eastern islands of the Furneaux Group were first recorded in 1773 by British navigator Tobias Furneaux, commander of, the support vessel with James Cook on Cook&#39;s second voyage. In February 1798 British navigator Matthew Flinders charted some of the southern islands, using one of the schooner Francis open boats. Later that year, Flinders returned and finished charting the islands in the Norfolk, he then went on to complete the first circumnavigation of Tasmania (1798–99), accompanied by George Bass, proving Tasmania to be an island separated from the Australian mainland by Bass Strait, later named in honor of George Bass.</p><br>
<h3>Geographic naming</h3><br>
<p>James Cook named the islands Furneaux&#39;s Islands, after Tobias Furneaux. Flinders named the largest island in the group "Great Island". He also named a group of mountains on Flinders Island, the "Three Patriarchs". The small island just to the east, Flinders named "Babel Island" from the noises made by the seabirds there. Phillip Parker King later named the largest island Flinders Island, after Matthew Flinders.</p><br>
<p>Flinders named Mount Chappell Island after his wife Ann née Ann Chappelle.</p><br>
<p>There are three islands named "Flinders&#39; Island"—the large island on the east side of Bass Strait, named by Phillip Parker King; an island in the Investigator Group of South Australia, named by Matthew Flinders after his young brother Samuel Flinders (midshipman on the ); and an island in the Flinders Group north of Cooktown, Queensland was named after Matthew Flinders.</p><br>
<h3>Settlement</h3><br>
<p>In the late 18th century, the island was often frequented by sealers and Aboriginal women, the majority of whom had been kidnapped from their mainland tribes. Seal stocks soon collapsed, causing the last sealing permit to be issued in 1828. Many sealers&#39; families chose to stay in the Furneaux Group, subsisting on cattle grazing and muttonbirding.</p><br>
<p>From 1830, the remnants of the Tasmanian Aboriginal population were exiled to Settlement Point (or Wybalenna, meaning "Black Mans House" in the language of the Ben Lomond people) on Flinders Island. These 160 survivors were deemed to be safe from white settlers here, but conditions were poor, and the relocation scheme was short-lived. In 1847, after a campaign by the Aboriginal population against their Commandant, Henry Jeanneret, which involved a petition to Queen Victoria, the remaining 47 Aboriginals were again relocated, this time to Oyster Cove Station, an ex-convict settlement 56 kilometres south of Tasmanias capital, Hobart, where it is thought that Truganini, the last full-blood Tasmanian Aborigine, died in 1876.</p><br>
<p>From the late 19th century freehold land was given out, but it was not until the 1950s that a proper settlement scheme was initiated, mainly drawing settlers from mainland Tasmania and central New South Wales to Flinders Island&#39;s eastern shore. The Municipality of Flinders Island was instituted in 1903.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and nature</h2><br>
<p>The island forms part of the state of Tasmania, and part of the Municipality of Flinders Island local government area. Flinders Island is only one of the many islands included in the Municipal area. Of these islands Flinders Island is the only island with more than one permanent settlement, and is by far the largest in the Furneaux Group.</p><br>
<p>The island is about 62 km from north to south, and 37 km from east to west. with a total land area of 1,333 km&sup2;. Mount Strzelecki in the south west is the island&#39;s highest peak at 756 m. About a third of the island is mountainous and rugged with ridges of granite running the length of the island. The coastal areas are dominated by sandy deposits often taking the shape of dunes. Many coastal lagoons punctuate the eastern shore, formed by dunes blocking further drainage. This drainage is mainly provided by many small streams, few of them permanently flowing directly leading to the waters of Bass Strait or such a lagoon.</p><br>
<p>The coastal areas are mainly covered in scrub or shrubs, whereas the vegetation at a higher elevation consists of woodland, mainly eucalyptus species. The total number of plant species in the Furneaux Group well exceeds 800, showing the great biodiversity of its ecosystem. The area surrounding Mount Strzelecki in the south west of the island constitutes Strzelecki National Park. The island also supports a population of feral turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Flinders Island has a mild oceanic climate (Cfb) that is strongly moderated by the Bass Strait. The summers are drier and less cloudy than the winters, and annual average rainfall totals less than 800 mm.</p><br>
<h3>Central Flinders Island Important Bird Area</h3><br>
<p>A 30 km tract of land on the island, lying mainly to the north and east of Whitemark, has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it contains three breeding colonies of the endangered forty-spotted pardalote and habitat used by flame robins. It also supports populations of several of Tasmania&#39;s restricted-range endemic bird species, including the green rosella, yellow-throated honeyeater, black-headed honeyeater, strong-billed honeyeater, Tasmanian thornbill, black currawong and dusky robin.</p><br>
<h3>Eastern Flinders Island Important Bird Area</h3><br>
<p>A 187 km strip of land extending the full 70 km length of Flinders Island&#39;s eastern coastline has also been identified as an IBA. it supports small numbers of fairy terns, large numbers of hooded plovers and over 1% of the world populations of chestnut teal, pied oystercatchers and sooty oystercatchers.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The population in 2011 was 700 people; the median age being 45.</p><br>
<p>Settlements include Whitemark (which has the islands main airstrip and about 155 inhabitants (2011) and Lady Barron (approx. 110 inhabitants), Blue Rocks, Killiecrankie, Wingaroo and Wybalenna (all below Lady Barrons population figure).</p><br>
<p>The 2016 census shows that the population is rising. The population of the Local Government Area, i.e. Flinders and Cape Barren Islands is 906; up from 776 in the 2011 Census.</p><br>
<p>The population of the 7255 postal code area, i.e. Flinders, is 833 up from 702 in 2011, a rise of over 16% for the Municipality and over 18% for Flinders over the 5 year period.</p><br>
<p>The median age of people in the Municipality has risen from 52 to 53, and the number of families has increased from 218 to 243.</p><br>
<h2>Communications</h2><br>
<p>As of 4 October 2010, Sharp Airlines has been operating services between Essendon, Flinders Island and Launceston. Using 19-seat Metroliners, they fly between Essendon Airport and Flinders Island Airport three return flights a week (65 minutes) and Launceston Airport and Flinders Island Airport at least daily (25 minutes). The, and also offer charter services between Launceston, Flinders Island and Victoria (as well as surrounding Islands).</p><br>
<p>A ferry service delivering food and perishable goods is operated to the island weekly by Furneaux Freight between Bridport, Tasmania and Lady Barron, Tasmania and also monthly from Port Welshpool, Victoria.</p><br>
<p>Australian Telecom provider Telstra offers the only mobile phone service on the island, providing 3G coverage across both Flinders and Cape Barren Island.</p><br>
<p>Internet access is limited to either a satellite dish connection or to use the 3G network.</p><br>
<p>Thirlmere is a reservoir in the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria and the English Lake District. The Helvellyn ridge lies to the east of Thirlmere. To the west of Thirlmere are a number of fells; for instance, Armboth Fell and Raven Crag both of which give views of the lake and of Helvellyn beyond.</p><br>
<p>It runs roughly south to north and is bordered on the eastern side for much of its length by the A591 road and on the western side by a minor road. It occupies the site of a former natural lake: this had a fordable waist so narrow that it was (and is) sometimes regarded as two lakes. In the 19th century Manchester Corporation constructed a dam at the northern end, raising the water level, flooding the valley bottom, and creating a reservoir to provide the growing industrial city of Manchester with water supplies via the 96 mile-long Thirlmere Aqueduct. The reservoir and the aqueduct still provide water to the Manchester area, but under the Water Act 1973 ownership passed to the North West Water Authority; as a result of subsequent privatisation and amalgamation they (and the catchment area surrounding the reservoir) are now owned and managed by United Utilities, a private water and waste water company.</p><br>
<h2>The natural lake</h2><br>
<p>We now approached the lake of Wyburn, or Thirlmer, as it is sometimes called; an object every way suited to the ideas of desolation which surround it, No tufted verdure graces its banks, nor hanging woods throw rich reflections on its surface: but every form which it suggests, is savage, and desolate.</p><br>
<p>Before the construction of the reservoir there was a smaller natural lake, known by various names including Leathes Water, Wythburn Water Thirle Water, and Thirlmere. (The Leathes were the lords of the manor, the valley in which the lake sat was Wythburndale (after the hamlet of Wythburn at its head), Thirlmere probably is derived from " the lake with/at the narrowing from OE þyrel aperture, pierced hole plus OE mere lake") The Ordnance Survey six-inch map of 1867 shows a single lake (Thirlmere) with its narrowest point at Wath Bridge roughly level with Armboth; at this point "The water is shallow and crossed by a bridge, so that piers are easily built and connected with little wooden bridges, and that difficult problem in engineering - crossing a lake - accomplished" and the map shows both a bridge and a ford between the west and east banks. (Wath=ford in Cumbrian placenames: the Bridge itself can be seen in: it was repeatedly carried away by floods (e.g. in November 1861.)) Because of this constriction there were "practically at low water two lakes, the river connecting them being crossed at the Narrows by a little wood and stone bridge", and the natural lake is sometimes characterised as two lakes. The stream exiting the lake (St Johns Beck) flowed north to the River Greta, which flowed west through Keswick to join the Cumbrian Derwent.</p><br>
<h2>The Thirlmere scheme</h2><br>
<h3>Use as a reservoir suggested</h3><br>
<p>In 1863, a pamphlet urged that Thirlmere and Haweswater should be made reservoirs, and their water conveyed (via Ullswater (used as a distributing reservoir)) 240 miles to London to supply it with two hundred million gallons a day of clean water; the cost of the project was put at ten million pounds. The scheme was considered by a Royal Commission on Water Supply chaired by the Duke of Richmond, but its report of 1869 dismissed such long-distance schemes, preferring to supply London by pumping from aquifers and abstraction from the Thames. The scheme continued to be proposed; by 1876, it had grown to include a branch feeder from Bala Lake and the cost had risen accordingly to £m 13.5; however nothing ever came of it.</p><br>
<p>The original scope specified for the Duke of Richmond&#39;s Royal Commission had been the water supply of London and other large cities, but the Commission had found itself fully occupied by consideration of the metropolitan water supply. For water supply elsewhere, its report had merely made general recommendations:... that no town or district should be allowed to appropriate a source of supply which naturally and geographically belongs to a town or district nearer to such source, unless under special circumstances which justify the appropriation.</p><br>
<p>That when any town or district is supplied by a line or conduit from a distance, provision ought to be made for the supply of all places along such lines.</p><br>
<p>That on the introduction of any provincial water bill into Parliament, attention should be drawn to the practicability of making the measure applicable to as extensive a district as possible, and not merely to the particular town.</p><br>
<h3>Manchester looks to Thirlmere</h3><br>
<p>The Corporations of both Manchester and Liverpool had already constructed a series of reservoirs to support their growth (Liverpool at Rivington, Manchester at Longendale) but saw no possibility of further reservoirs there. Concerned that their existing water supplies would be rendered inadequate by their growth, they were now seeking further supplies: to comply with the Royal Commission&#39;s "no poaching" recommendation any further reservoirs would have to be much further afield. In 1875 John Frederick Bateman suggested that Manchester and Liverpool should supply themselves with water from Haweswater and Ullswater (made reservoirs) as a joint undertaking. Both Liverpool and Manchester Corporation rejected this, feeling that the interests of their city required its water supply to be independent of that of any other city. Instead in 1877, Liverpool initiated a scheme for a reservoir on the headwaters of the Vyrnwy in North Wales; at the instigation of their chairman (a native of Cumberland with a second home at Portinscale on Derwentwater), the Waterworks Committee of Manchester Corporation proposed to supply Manchester with water from a Thirlmere reservoir.</p><br>
<p>In their report to the full Council, it was noted that water consumption had been 8 million gallons a day in 1855, 11 million gallons a day in 1865, in 1874 18 million gallons a day on average with peak demand 21 million gallons a day. The reliable supply from the Longendale reservoirs in periods of drought was only 25 million gallons per day, but in the last two years demand had increased by 2.4 million gallons a day. Demand therefore was predicted to exceed the reliable supply in about seven years; it would take at least that to bring any major additional water supply on stream. Any major new works should aim to secure adequate supplies for the next thirty or fifty years; these could only be found in the mountains and lakes of northern Lancashire, Westmorland or Cumberland. Only Ullswater, Haweswater and Thirlmere were high enough to supply Manchester by gravity flow; the natural drainage of all three was to the north, but Thirlmere lay immediately below the pass of Dunmail Raise and the engineering to bring its waters south of the watershed would be significantly easier than for (for example) Ullswater. Thirlmere water had been analysed by Professor Roscoe who pronounced it superior even to that of Loch Katrine and thus one of the best waters known.</p><br>
<p>Speaking to the report, the chairman of the Waterworks Committee noted that the catchment area was over 11,000 acres (in which there were not more than 200 inhabitants) and the annual rainfall about 110 inches; fifty million gallons a day could be collected and sent to Manchester; unlike the massive dams in Longendale, all that was needed was a wall fifty foot high across. As regards aesthetic objections: "he was himself a native of the district where this water was to be found, and … there was no man living who would protect the beauties of the scenery with greater ardour and zeal than he would, but no man with common sense would say that in the works they were contemplating they were destroying any of the beauties of the place"</p><br>
<p>The report had predicted little opposition to the scheme, by which it asserted the "beauty of the lake will be rather enhanced than otherwise". Other councillors were less sure of this, one noting that "they were going for a scheme which however they might gloss it over themselves, would arouse an amount of feeling on a question of sentiment of which the council had little conception, and therefore they must prepare for a very heavy parliamentary contest"</p><br>
<h3>The Thirlmere Defence Association</h3><br>
<p>To protect the purity of Thirlmere water, Manchester Corporation set about buying up all the land in its catchment area; the price it offered was such that there was little truly local opposition to the scheme. In Keswick, the nearest town, over 90% of ratepayers signed a petition in favour (Keswick had suffered repeatedly from flooding after heavy rainfall in the Thirlmere area). To the south, the only town council in Westmorland (Kendal) voted to support the scheme (hoping that a supply from the aqueduct would be a cheaper solution to their water supply problems than the new waterworks which would otherwise be needed): a local paper noted that "the inhabitants of Westmorland are not much alarmed at it …so far they have stolidly refused to lose their tempers, or even waste many words over it". At a meeting to form a Lake District Association to promote tourism in the region, it was quickly agreed not to take a view on the Thirlmere scheme; otherwise the Association would break up before it was fairly started.</p><br>
<p>The aqueduct, however, was objected to by owners of land through which it would pass: under normal procedure they would be the only objectors with sufficient locus standi to be heard against the private bill necessary to authorise the scheme. Those who objected to the change in the appearance (as they saw it destruction of the beauty) of the lake would be unable to demonstrate any financial interest in the matter. They therefore needed to stop the project by mobilising opinion against the scheme; in 1876 this - together with economic hard times - had seen off a scheme to link the existing railheads at Keswick and Windermere by a railway running alongside Thirlmere. "If every person who has visited the Lake District, in a true nature-loving spirit would be ready, when the right time comes, to sign an indignant protest against the scheme, surely there might be some hope..." that Parliament would reject the Bill, urged one correspondent, who went on to urge legal protection for natural beauty, along the lines of that proposed for ancient monuments by Sir John Lubbock or for the Yellowstone area in the United States. Octavia Hill called for a committee to organise (and collect funds for) an effective opposition. A meeting at Grasmere in September 1877, considered a report on the Thirlmere scheme from and formed a Thirlmere Defence Association with over £1000 of subscriptions pledged. By February 1878, members of the TDA included Thomas Carlyle, Matthew Arnold, William Morris, Thomas Woolner R.A., John Gilbert R.A. and Derwent Coleridge.</p><br>
<p>Aesthetic opposition to the scheme was aggravated by the suggestion that Manchester Corporation would improve on nature and varied in tone and thoughtfulness: the Carlisle Patriot thought Manchester welcome to take all the water it needed, provided only that it must not "destroy or deface those natural features which constitute the glory of the Lake District" and advised against any attempt to mitigate the offence by tree-planting; Thirlmere had ".a character of its own which makes the suggested artificiality intolerable. The rocky walls that hem it in boast no verdure: wild precipices, grand in the austerity of their barrenness cast their reflections on the mere, and by their wildness scout the municipal device of decoration."</p><br>
<p>John Ruskin denounced Manchester in general I am quite aware that there are many amiable persons in Manchester - and much general intelligence. But, taken as a whole, I perceive that Manchester can produce no good art, and no good literature; it is falling off even in the quality of its cotton; it has reversed, and vilified in loud lies, every essential principle of political economy; it is cowardly in war, predatory in peace... The Mancunian press thought it detected a similar (if less blatant) prejudice and an essentially Cockney agitation when papers such as the Pall Mall Gazette editorialised "The visible universe was not created merely to supply materials towards the manufacture of shoddy"</p><br>
<p>Speaking at the opening of the new Town Hall in Manchester, the Bishop of Manchester declared himself surprised at the language of the scheme&#39;s opponents, many of whom, he thought, had no idea where Thirlmere was</p><br>
<h3>Private Bill of 1878</h3><br>
<p>Manchester gave the required notice of its forthcoming Bill in November 1877. It sought powers to dam the outflow from Thirlmere and to divert into it a number of neighbouring gills which did not already drain into it, to build an aqueduct from Thirlmere to Manchester, and to extract water from Thirlmere. In addition a section of the existing Keswick-Ambleside turnpike north of Wythburn was to be diverted to run at a higher level, and a new carriage road was to be built on the western side of Thirlmere. Compulsory purchase powers were sought to allow these works to be carried out, and to allow Manchester Corporation to buy and keep land in the Thirlmere catchment area.</p><br>
<p>In response, the TDA issued a statement of its case. The scheme would destroy the distinctive charm of Thirlmere which was entirely free from modern erections out of harmony with the surroundings, raising the level would destroy the many small bays which gave the west shore its character, the picturesque windings of the existing road on the east side were to be replaced by a dead level road, at the northern end one of the sweetest glens in Cumberland was to be the site of an enormous embankment. Worst of all, in a dry season, the lake would be drawn down to its old level, exposing over three hundred acres of oozy mud and rotting vegetation. "Few persons, whose taste is not utterly uneducated, are likely to share the confidence of the water committee in their power to enhance the loveliness of such a scene, or will think that the boldest devices of engineering skill will be other than a miserable substitute for the natural beauties they displace."</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, the scheme was unnecessary: Manchester already had an ample supply of water; its apparent consumption was so high because it was selling water to industrial users, and to areas outside Manchester and Manchester sought to increase such sales because they were profitable. Manchester could easily get more (and of a superior quality) from wells tapping the New Red Sandstone aquifer; if they were still unsatisfied there were vast untouched collecting grounds in the moorlands of Lancashire. There was also a more general point; the Thirlmere scheme if approved would set a precedent for municipalities to buy up whole valleys in the Lake District, leaving them at the mercy of "bodies of men, skilful and diligent enough in managing local affairs, but having little capacity to appreciate the importance of subjects beyond their daily sphere of action" with painful consequences for their natural beauty.</p><br>
<h4>Second Reading debate</h4><br>
<p>In January 1878, Edward Howard, the MP for East Cumberland who had given notice of a motion calling for a Select Committee looking at the problems of water supply to Lancashire and Yorkshire (which would have prevented progress of the Thirlmere Bill until the Select Committee had reported), announced that he would delay introducing the motion until the Thirlmere Bill had been defeated at second reading. Normally, private Bills were not opposed at Second Reading; their success or failure was determined by the Committee stage which followed. However, when the Second Reading of the Thirlmere Bill was moved, Howard spoke against it, and was supported by William Lowther, MP for Westmorland. Two Manchester MPs spoke for the Bill, as did the MP for Cockermouth, a West Cumberland mine-owner and industrialist.</p><br>
<h4>Committee Stage</h4><br>
<p>The bill was considered by a committee chaired by Lyon Playfair: its terms of reference were (bulleting added for clarity)</p><br>
<p>to inquire into, and report upon the present sufficiency of the water supply of Manchester and its neighbourhood, and of any other sources available for such supply</p><br>
<p>to consider whether permission should be given to make use of any of the Westmoreland and Cumberland lakes for the purpose, and if so, how far and under what conditions, to consider the prospective requirements of the populations situated between the lake district and Manchester</p><br>
<p>to inquire, and report, whether any, and, if so, what, provisions should be made in limitation of proposals for the exclusive use of the water of any of the said lakes</p><br>
<h4>=Manchester's case=</h4><br>
<p>Manchester fielded a legal team headed by Sir Edmund Beckett QC, a leading practitioner at the parliamentary bar: they called witnesses to make the case for the scheme. Manchester waterworks supplied an area containing 800,000 inhabitants, about 380,000 of whom lived within the city boundary. In dry summers, the water supply had to be cut off at night to conserve stocks. In 1868, admittedly before the works in Longendale were complete, this had happened for 75 days. Water consumption was about 22 gallons a day per person, but it was that low because Manchester had discouraged water-closets and baths in working-class housingThe waterworks did not make a profit; by Act of Parliament the total water rate could not exceed 10d per pound rental within the city; 12d in the supplied area outside the city (to have equal rates would be unfair to the rate payers who stood as guarantors for very large capital expenditure) Manchester was not profiteering from its present water supply, nor was it out to profit from the scheme: it would accept whatever obligation to supply areas along the aqueduct route (and/or price cap on sales outside the city) the committee saw fit to impose.</p><br>
<p>There was no possibility of adding further reservoirs in Longendale and no suitable unclaimed sites south of the Lune; the headwaters of the Lune were in limestone country, making both water quality (soft water was preferred by domestic customers and needed for textile processing) Thirlmere water was exceptionally pure whereas water pumped from the sandstone even when drinkable generally had considerable permanent hardness</p><br>
<p>Taking water from Ullswater rather than Thirlmere would cost about £370,000 more. Thirlmere had higher rainfall than Longendale(even in the driest year, 72 inches should be expected) and (by raising the water level) storage sufficient to allow the supply of fifty million gallons a day through any reasonably sustained drought: The aqueduct to Manchester would (at different points on its route) be a tunnel through rock, a buried culvert constructed by cut-and-cover, or cast-iron pipes (for example where the aqueduct crossed a river, it would normally do so by an inverted syphon in pipes). Five 40-inch diameter pipes would be provided to take the full fifty million gallons per day, but initially only one pipe would be laid - others would be added as demand increased.</p><br>
<p>The former secretary of the Duke of Richmond&#39;s Royal Commission gave evidence of the scheme they had considered, which involved raising the level of Thirlmere 64 feet. Examination of the area around the outlet showed that Thirlmere had previously overflowed at a level 65 feet higher than at present.</p><br>
<p>Hence "it would only be necessary to dam up the present outlet... to raise the lake to its original level&quot were this done "the lake when filled will be more in keeping with the grandeur of the hills around" Variations in reservoir water level would only expose a gravel or shingle shore (as happened now with natural fluctuations in level): there was nothing in the water to support the formation of mudbanks. The Commission had thought it would be unreasonable for London to take water from the Lakes without considering the needs of the industrial North; it had remarked favourably on Manchester supplying nearby towns as an instance of how by combination small towns might secure a better supply than they could by their own efforts. The same principle applied to supplying towns on the route of the aqueduct.</p><br>
<h4>=Independent witnesses=</h4><br>
<p>A number of independent witnesses were then called by the committee. Professor Ramsay, Director-General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, confirmed the previous higher level of the lake: Playfair said he considered the evidence of the degradation of the lake by the gorge being opened most important. Robert Rawlinson, chief engineering inspector to the Local Government Board favoured the Thirlmere scheme (thirty years earlier he had proposed a similar scheme to supply Liverpool from Bala Lake) and vouched for the competence of Bateman.</p><br>
<h4>=Opposition on aesthetic grounds=</h4><br>
<p>After calling witnesses with a straightforward locus standi under Private Bill standing orders and hearing their objections (detriment to salmon fishing in the Greta if floods and spates were eliminated, the dangers to gentlemens residences from aqueduct bursts, interference of the aqueduct with natural drainage, and the undesirable disturbance from constructing the aqueduct through gentlemens private pleasure grounds (and doing so on five occasions where pipes were used).) witnesses with aesthetic objections were heard. A Stourbridge solicitor owning a house and 160 acres in Grasmere objected to the trace of the aqueduct as a great scar on the landscape; he had laid out £1000 on building roads on his land in hopes of selling plots for the construction of houses: you may build houses without disfiguring the district, but the aqueduct would destroy the essential local feature of the district. A Keswick bank manager objected because the dam would be vulnerable to a waterspout, experienced in St Johns Vale many times. He was supported by William Wordsworth (the only surviving son of the poet) who spoke of waterspouts at Rydal, and went on to object that raising the level of Thirlmere would remove its natural indentations: repeated attempts by him to dilate on the lakes associations with the Lake Poets were treated unsympathetically by counsel for Manchester and eventually ended by the committee chairman. Witnesses then testified to Thirlmere having a muddy bottom (but one said it was only found at more than twelve feet down.) The brother (and heir) of the lord of the manor gave evidence that the beauty of Thirlmere lay in it being more secluded than other lakes: his counsel used his examination to suggest that Manchester Corporation was buying excessive amounts of land with a view to selling off building plots should the waterworks scheme be defeated. A Grasmere villa-owner likened the scheme to some modern Cockney daubing paint on a picture in the National Gallery and claiming it to be an improvement; he predicted stinking mud around the edges of Thirlmere because that was what found around Grasmere. W E Forster held both that if Manchester needed water and could get it nowhere other than Thirlmere, the scheme should go ahead; but that - if it did - beauty more valuable than any picture that was or was to come would be lost to the people of England, who would not be recompensed by any amount of compensation to landed proprietors: Parliament should ensure that beauty was not lost unnecessarily. (Forster was not only a prominent politician with a house near Ambleside, but also a partner in a West Riding worsted manufacturer, and Beckett pressed him on why the generation of dust and smoke and turning rivers into ink in the valleys of the West Riding was not in greater need of Parliamentary scrutiny than raising the level of Thirlmere was.)</p><br>
<h4>=Need for the Thirlmere scheme questioned=</h4><br>
<p>Manchesters current and future needs for water were then disputed, the adequacy of the Thirlmere scheme queried, and alternative schemes for increasing the supply of water to Manchester suggested. Edward Hull, director of the Irish section of the Geological Survey, gave evidence on the ready availability of water from the New Red Sandstone aquifer around Manchester. He estimated that one square mile could yield 139,000 gallons a day; a single well would give up to two million gallons a day. The Delamere Forest region, 25 miles from Manchester, had 126 square miles of the sandstone and was untapped: it should be possible to extract 16,500,000 gallons a day from it. George Symons gave evidence on rainfall. He predicted that in the driest year, the rainfall at Thirlmere would be no more than 60 inches; about ten inches of this would be lost in evaporation, and Manchester were promising to maintain flows down St Johns Beck equivalent to another nine inches. In cross-examination he conceded that he had had a rain gauge at Thirlmere since 1866 and the lowest annual rainfall it had recorded was 82 inches; re-examined he thought Manchester could not get 50 million gallons a day from Thirlmere; the most they could rely upon was 25 million gallons a day. Alderman King, the only Manchester alderman to have voted against the scheme, reported that since 1874 the water consumption had decreased and in his opinion Manchester&#39;s present supply was adequate for the next ten years. He pointed out that Bateman had originally suggested using Ullswater, rather than Thirlmere, as a reservoir, and had at the start of the Longendale scheme been over-optimistic in his estimate of its cost and yield; he therefore thought the Thirlmere scheme imprudent from the point of view of Manchester ratepayers.</p><br>
<p>MICE thought that Manchesters high consumption in the early 1870s had been due to wastage; his calculations were that it would be fifteen years before Manchester needed more water. When it did, it could increase reservoir capacity in Longendale; much of the rain falling there currently ran to waste. It might also be prudent to reduce the amount of compensation water released from the Longendale reservoirs to feed mills downstream, and to have contingency arrangements to pump water from the sandstone aquifer in time of drought He also objected to Manchester claiming so productive a source of water for itself, and doubted if it would deal fairly with other towns wanting Thirlmere water; if it did, the scheme would be of general public benefit. Playfair perhaps speaking more as a sanitarian&#39; queried whether Liverpool was so sanitary a town as to be a good example of how Manchester might reduce consumption, and whether the existing restrictions on consumption in Manchester should not eased by increasing the water supply: Marten disagreed (if Liverpool was insanitary, it was because of the presence of foreigners, it being a seaport.)</p><br>
<h4>=Alternative sources suggested=</h4><br>
<p>agreed with Marten that the restrictions on consumption in Manchester were not too stringent and was astonished at Bateman&#39;s claim that there were no further suitable reservoir sites in Longendale; in one weekend he had identified four or five suitable sites. After Longendale there were other possible sites, amongst many others those on the headwaters of the Derbyshire Derwent gave evidence on the practicality of using reservoirs on the Derwent, but had to admit that he did so on the basis of the work of one weekend visit to the area, that the Derwent catchment area did not naturally belong to Manchester, and that the Derwent flowed past Chatsworth so any interference with its natural flow would have to be agreeable to the Duke of Devonshire. The Derwent valley was almost as beautiful as the lakes, but lacked a lake; its beauty would be improved by a reservoir. Aqueducts (like one he had built for Dewsbury) were scarcely visible once built, and much more care was now taken in the construction of dams; dam failure was a thing of the past.</p><br>
<p>Playfair declined the offer of further evidence from Manchester on getting water from the Derwent catchment area, as its proponents had given no real detail, nor any notice to potential objectors: a brief comment by Bateman would suffice.</p><br>
<p>Bateman was then re-examined on the possibility of increasing storage at Longendale. Eastons suggestion of additional sites was utterly absurd&#39;; all practicable sites were already taken: "He had been working in these valleys for nearly thirty years, and he thought he knew something more about them than a man who made a galloping journey over them in one day". Taking water from the Derwent catchment area would require a nine-mile-long tunnel, and cost nearly as much as Thirlmere for half the yield.</p><br>
<h4>=Closing submissions=</h4><br>
<p>Counsel for the TDA conceded that if Manchester needed the water, then it must have it; but it had been shown the beauty of the lake would be greatly damaged, and therefore Manchester needed to show that there was no other way to meet its needs: it was not for the objectors to provide a worked-up alternative scheme. It had been shown there was no necessity; Manchester would not need more water for many years to come. The scheme had been brought forward to gratify the ambition of Manchester Corporation, and of Mr Bateman, its engineer. In purchasing land around Thirlmere they had exceeded their powers, as they had done for many years by supplying water outside their district, as though they were a commercial water company, not a municipal undertaking. Bateman&#39;s calculations were based upon aiming to fully meet demand in a dry year, but failure to do so would cause only temporary inconvenience: one might as well build a railway entirely in a tunnel to ensure the line would not be blocked by snow. In any case more storage could be provided in Longendale and the Derwent headwaters, and more water could be extracted from the sandstone.</p><br>
<p>He was followed by counsel for various local authorities, arguing against the Bill being passed without it laying any obligation on Manchester to supply water at a reasonable price to neighbouring authorities and to districts through which the aqueduct passed. As counsel for the TDA objected, these objectors were - in everything but name - supporters of the scheme speaking in favour of it.</p><br>
<p>Beckett began by attacking the aesthetic issue head on. He objected to the false sentimentality of "people calling themselves learned, refined, and aesthetical, and thinking nobody had a right to an opinion but themselves", and in particular to Forster who thought himself entitled to talk about national sentiment and British interests as though there were no two views of the case. The lake had been higher in the past, and there was no good reason to think it would not look better covering 800 acres than covering 350. Forster talked of Parliament interfering to protect natural beauty, just as it interfered to protect the commons, but the analogy failed: Forster wanted to interfere (on the basis of national sentiment) with the right of people to do they saw fit with their own property; this was communism. Forster was not even consistent: he saw no need for Parliament to have powers to prevent woollen mills being built at Thirlmere, and turning its waters as inky as the Wharfe. Aesthetics disposed of, the case became a simple one. Manchester was not undertaking the project because it loved power: nothing in the Bill increased its supply area by a single acre; it sold water to other authorities because Parliament expected it to; it was nonsense to suggest that the town clerk of Manchester needed instruction on the legality of doing so. It was clear that the population of South Lancashire would continue to increase; it was absurd for counsel for the TDA to object to this as an unwarranted assumption upon which the argument that Manchester would need more water in the foreseeable future rested. As for the suggestion that more water might be got in Longendale, this rested on overturning the settled views of an engineer with thirty years experience in the valley by a last-minute survey lasting under thirty hours by Mr Easton, whose conduct was shameful and scandalous. Other schemes had been floated; the Derwent, the Cheshire sandstone, but they were too hypothetical to be relied upon. The Thirlmere scheme, which by its boldness ensured cheap and plentiful water to South Lancashire for years to come, was the right solution. If it was rejected, Manchester would not pursue little schemes here and there, giving little sups of water&#39;; they would wait until Parliament was of their turn of mind.</p><br>
<h4>Committee findings and loss of Bill</h4><br>
<p>The committee agreed unanimously to pass the bill in principle, provided introduction of a clause allowing for arbitration on aesthetic issues on the line of the aqueduct, and of one requiring bulk supply of water (at a fair price) to towns and local authorities demanding it, if they were near the aqueduct (with Manchester and its supply area having first call on up to 25 gallons per head of population from Thirlmere and Longendale combined.) Suitable clauses having been inserted, the committee stage of the bill was successfully completed 4 April 1878. The report of the committee said that</p><br>
<p>Manchester was justified in seeking additional sources of supply; there were already nearly a million inhabitants of its statutory supply area and a shortfall could arise within ten years. It would be unwise to expect any increase in the supply from Longendale. The Derwent scheme was too costly (and given in insufficient detail) to require consideration, and it would be unjust to other Lancashire towns to allow Manchester to appropriate catchment areas closer than the Lakes.</p><br>
<p>Thirlmere was of great natural beauty. Formation of the reservoir would restore the lake to a former level; characteristic features would be lost, but new ones would be formed. The purchase of the land in the catchment area (with a view to prevent mines and villas) would preserve its natural state for generations to come; the construction of roads would make its beauty more accessible to the public. Fluctuations in level (except in prolonged drought) would not be significantly greater than the current natural variation, and (the margin of the lake being shingle, not mud) would be unimportant. Hence, "the water of Lake Thirlmere could be used without detriment to the public enjoyment of the lake". As for the aqueduct, beyond temporary inconvenience and unsightliness during construction, there would be little or no permanent injury to the scenery.</p><br>
<p>the interest of water authorities on or near the line of the aqueduct in securing a supply of water from it had been considered. In accordance with the recommendation of the Richmond Commission, an appropriate clause had been inserted, and the preamble of the bill adjusted accordingly.</p><br>
<p>The Bill received its Third Reading in the Commons 10 May 1878 (the TDA, however, appealing to its supporters for £2,000 to fund further opposition in the Lords.) The TDA then objected that the Bill, as it left the Commons, did not meeting the standing orders of the House of Lords, as the required notice had not been given of the new clauses. This objection was upheld, and the Standing Orders Committee of the House of Lords therefore rejected the Bill.</p><br>
<h3>Bill of 1879</h3><br>
<p>Manchester returned with another Thirlmere Bill in the next session: the Council&#39;s decision to do so was endorsed by a town meeting and, when called for by opponents, a vote of ratepayers (43,362 votes for; 3524 against) The 1879 Bill as first advertised was essentially the 1878 Bill as it had left the Commons, with some additional concessions to the TDA (most notably that Thirlmere was never to be drawn down below its natural pre-reservoir level) being made later. In February 1879, Edward Howard introduced a motion calling for a Select Committee looking at the problems of water supply to Lancashire and Yorkshire (which would have prevented progress of the Thirlmere Bill until the Select Committee had reported). In doing so, he criticised (without prior notice) the conduct of the hybrid committee of 1878.</p><br>
<p>The President of the Local Government Board thought a Royal Commission unnecessary (much information had already been gathered and was freely available), and Howard&#39;s motion was too transparently an attempt to block the Thirlmere Bill. Forster regretted the decision of the hybrid committee, but it had been an able committee, and its conclusions should be respected. Playfair also defended the committee; it had (as required by the Commons) carefully examined the regional and public interest issues which a Royal Commission was now supposedly needed to re-examine properly. As a result of this, a clause had been introduced which made the Bill effectively a public one; the Lords had then refused to consider the Bill because the additional clauses fell foul of requirements for a purely private Bill. Howard withdrew his motion. At committee stage, the preamble was unopposed and the only objector against the clauses was unsuccessful. Committee stage was completed 25 March 1879; the same objection was made at the Lords Select Committee, and was again unsuccessful; the Bill received Royal Assent in May 1879. it became 42 & 43 Vict. c. 36</p><br>
<h2>Conversion to Manchester's reservoir</h2><br>
<h3>The scheme on pause</h3><br>
<p>The Act set no time limit for completion of the work, but the compulsory purchase powers it gave were to expire at the end of 1886. There was no immediate shortage of water, and it was decided to undertake no engineering until purchasing of property and way-leaves was essentially complete. However, these were not pursued with any great urgency (especially after the replacement of the chairman of the waterworks committee, Alderman Grave), and 1884 Grave began a series of letters to the press calling for greater urgency. He was answered by Alderman King, long opposed to the scheme, who urged that it be dropped, pointing out that in 1881 the average daily consumption of water had been under 19 million gallons a day, less than 2 million gallons a day more than in 1875; on that basis not until 1901 would average daily consumption reach the limits of supply from Longendale. In turn, Bateman (complaining "Where almost every statement is incorrect, and the conclusions, therefore, fallacious, it is difficult within any reasonable compass to deal with all") responded: the reassuring calculation reflected a recent period of trade depression and wet summers; the question was not of the average consumption over the year, but of the ability of supply and storage to meet demand in a hot and dry summer; as professional adviser to the water committee he would not have dared incurred the risk of failing to do so by delaying the start of work for so long. The waterworks committee steered a middle course; the Thirlmere scheme was not to be lost sight of, they argued in July 1884, but - in view of the current trade depression - it should not be unduly hastened.</p><br>
<p>The summer of 1884 was, however, one of prolonged drought. At the start of July, after three months with little rain, there was still 107 days&#39; supply in the reservoirs</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, the water drawn down from the reservoirs had had a disagreeable and most offensive odour The drought broke in October; it had lasted a month longer than that of 1868, but the water supply had not had to be turned off at night; the waterworks committee thought the council could congratulate itself on this but in January 1885 the committee sought, and the council (despite further argument by Alderman King) gave permission to commence the Thirlmere works.</p><br>
<h3>Construction work</h3><br>
<p>The first phase was to construct the aqueduct with a capacity of ten thousand gallons a day, and to raise the level of Thirlmere by damming up its natural exit to the north. The engineer for the project was</p><br>
<p>(formerly an assistant, and then partner of Bateman). Contracts for the aqueduct went out for tender in autumn 1885; by April 1886 excavation of the tunnels had begun and hutted camps had sprung up (at White Moss, and elsewhere) to house the army of navvies (who were paid 4d an hour): The original contractor suspended work in February 1887, and the contract had to be re-let. A further Bill (supported by the Lake District Defence Society and Canon Rawnsley) was contemplated for 1889 to allow Thirlmere to be raised only 20 ft in the first instance, and defer improvement of the road on the west side of the lake but was not proceeded with. Boring of the tunnel under Dunmail Raise was completed in July 1890, and work then began on the dam at the north end of Thirlmere. There were then between five and six thousand men working on the Thirlmere project.</p><br>
<p>Before any supply from Thirlmere became available, there were two dry summers during which Manchester experienced a water famine. The summer of 1887 was the driest for years, with stocks falling to 14 days supply in early August, and the water supply consequently being cut off from 6 pm to 6 am. Stocks at the start of 1888 were markedly lower than in previous years, and as early as March 1888 the water supply was again cut off overnight (8pm - 5am), but spring rain soon allowed a resumption of the constant supply. 1893 saw another dry summer, with stocks falling to twenty-four days supply by the start of September and that - a councillor complained - of inferior quality with an abundance of animal life visible to the naked eye in tap water. By now, the aqueduct and dam were complete, but under the 1879 Act the roads around Thirlmere had to be completed before any water could be taken from it. The summer of 1894 was wet, and starting to use Thirlmere water would mean charges of £10,000 a year; the opening was therefore delayed until October 1894. There were two opening ceremonies; one at Thirlmere followed next day in Manchester by the turning-on of water to a fountain in Albert Square.</p><br>
<h2>Thirlmere as Manchester's reservoir</h2><br>
<h3>First phase: 10 million gallons a day, lake 20 ft above natural</h3><br>
<p>For the next ten years, the level of Thirlmere was twenty foot above that of the old lake: lowland pasturage was lost, but little housing. The straight level road on the east bank was favourably commented upon in accounts of cycling tours of the lakes, and it was widely thought - as James Lowther (MP for Penrith and the son of the Westmorland MP who had spoken against the 1878 Bill at its Second Reading) said at the Third Reading of a Welsh Private Bill - "the beauty of Thirlmere had been improved" by the scheme.</p><br>
<p>Thirlmere water reached Manchester through a single 40-inch diameter cast iron pipe; due to leakage, only about 80% of the intended 10 million gallons a day supply reached Manchester. and, as early as May 1895 more than half the additional supply was accounted for by increased consumption. An Act of 1891 had allowed Manchester to specify water-closets for all new buildings and modification of existing houses; Manchester now encouraged back-fitting of water-closets, and reduced the additional charge for baths.</p><br>
<p>The average daily consumption in 1899 was 32.5 million gallons a day, with 41 million gallons being consumed in a single day at the end of August In June 1900, Manchester Corporation accepted the recommendation of its Waterworks Committee that a second pipe be laid from Thirlmere; it insisted that despite any potential shortfall in water supply a water-closet policy should be continued. The first section of the second pipe was laid at Troutbeck in October 1900. Hill noted that it would take three or four years to complete the second pipe, at the current rate of increase of consumption as soon as the second pipe was completed it would be time to start on the third.</p><br>
<p>In April 1901, the Longendale reservoirs were practically full; by mid-July they held only 49 days supply, and it was thought prudent to cut off the water supply at night; by October stocks were down to 23 days, even though water was running to waste at Thirlmere In 1902, the constant supply was maintained throughout the summer and the Longendale stocks never dropped below 55 days consumption, but 1904 again saw the suspension of supply at night, with stocks falling as low as 17 days supply at the start of November just before the second pipe came into use.</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent phases and consequent criticism</h3><br>
<p>The second pipe could deliver 12 million gallons a day, giving a total capacity of the aqueduct of twenty million gallons a day. The water level was raised to 35 ft above natural; the area of the lake now increasing to 690 acres. Seventy-nine acres of Shoulthwaite Moss (north of Thirlmere) were reclaimed as winter pasture to compensate for the loss of acreage around Thirlmere. A third pipe was authorised in 1906,</p><br>
<p>construction began in October 1908, and was completed in 1915: this increased the potential supply from Thirlmere to thirty million gallons a day against an average daily demand which had now reached forty-five million gallons: in the summer of 1911 it had again been necessary to suspend the water supply at night. The lake was then raised to fifty feet above natural; a fourth and final pipeline was completed in 1927, its authorisation having been delayed by the First World War until 1921; as early as 1918 Manchester Corporation had identified the need for a further source of water, and identified Haweswater as that source. At the committee stage of Manchesters 1919 Bill to tap Haweswater, the average daily demand on Manchesters water supply in 1917 was said to have been 51.2 million gallons a day, with the reliable supply from Longendale being no more than 20 million gallons a day and Thirlmere being able to supply 30 million gallons a day, which would rise to 40 million gallons a day when the fourth pipe was laid. The aqueduct capacity could be increased to fifty million gallons a day by laying a fifth pipe, but could not be increased beyond that whilst the aqueduct was still being used to deliver water to Manchester.</p><br>
<p>At the committee stage of the Haweswater bill, objectors made no mention of the aesthetic concerns raised against the Thirlmere bills: "The world now knows that many of the fears then expressed were very foolish ones, and would never be realised under any circumstances, or at any place" said the Yorkshire Post although Manchester countered the suggestion that it should not annex Haweswater, but instead further raise the level of Thirlmere because "it would mean such injury to the Lake District that they would have the whole country up against them"</p><br>
<p>When the Lords defeated Manchesters Bill for abstraction of water from Ullswater in 1962, however, many speakers pointed to Manchesters stewardship of Thirlmere to show why the Bill should be defeated:</p><br>
<p>to improve the retention of water in the catchment area, from 1907 onwards Manchester had planted extensive stands of conifers on both banks of the reservoir; as they grew, they had radically altered the appearance of the area, and (as James Lowther - now Lord Ullswater - complained) destroyed the views from the road on the west bank provided to give the public views of Helvellyn</p><br>
<p>As Thirlmere water became more essential as a supply to Manchester, the draw-down of the reservoir in dry weather increased to double the 8–9 foot promised in the 1870s.</p><br>
<p>"Large flooding of a valley bottom means an end to farming, and Thirlmere and Mardale are farmless and depopulated" but this was not just because of the higher water level. There was no provision for water treatment downstream of Thirlmere (or Longendale), and Manchester therefore relied on minimising pollution at source. To achieve this, it minimised human activity in the catchment area. Much of the settlement around Wythburn church (including the Nags Head, a coaching inn with Wordsworthian associations) remained above water level but it was suppressed, accommodation for necessary waterworks employees being provided at Fisher End and Stanah east of the northern end of the reservoir. Eventually Manchester Corporation closed Wythburn churchyard, St Johns in the Vale being now more convenient for its future customers.</p><br>
<p>To protect the water from contamination by tourists and visitors, bathing boating and fishing were prohibited, and access to the lake effectively banned. This policy was supported by "...barbed wire, wire netting, regimented rows of conifers and trespass warning notices, as common as Verboten notices in Nazi Germany…" said the Yorkshire Post in 1946.</p><br>
<h2>Thirlmere after Manchester</h2><br>
<p>Under the Water Act 1973 ownership passed from Manchester to the North West Water Authority; this was privatised (as North West Water) in 1990 and a subsequent merger created United Utilities, a private water and waste water company, which now owns and manages the reservoir and its catchment area. Keswick is now supplied with Thirlmere water (via a water treatment works at Bridge End to the north of the dam), and (as of 2017) it is intended to also supply West Cumbria from Thirlmere by 2022, thus allowing cessation of water abstraction from Ennerdale Water. The crenelated building housing the original straining well at the northern end of the tunnel under Dunmail Raise (made redundant by a water treatment plant at the southern exit of the tunnel under the Raise) which began operation in 1980 ) is now a Grade II listed building.</p><br>
<p>The new water treatment plant has permitted greater public access to the lake, and the views across the lake from the roads on either side have been restored by the selective felling of non-native trees between them and the lake shore. The landscape remains heavily influenced by land management policies intended to protect water quality; in April–May 1999 there were 282 cases of cryptosporidiosis in Liverpool and Greater Manchester and the outbreak was thought to be due to the presence of the Cryptosporidium parasite in livestock grazing in the Thirlmere catchment area.</p><br>
<p>South of the lake, the only habitation is the occasional hill farm around Steel End. From the south end of the lake to the dam, the reservoir completely covers the floor of a narrow steep-sided valley whose sides have extensive and predominantly coniferous forestry plantations, without dwellings or settlements. During periods of dry weather the water level drops revealing a wide band of bare exposed rock. According to the Lake District National Park Authority:</p><br>
<p>If the damming of the valley and the enlargement of two small lakes to form a large reservoir was landscape change on a large scale, so was the afforestation of nearly 800 hectares of land to prevent erosion, protect water quality and to profit from harvested timber. It is regarded by many as the greater crime. The large blocks of non-indigenous conifers and the scar left by draw-down of the reservoir in dry periods are undoubtedly elements which detract from Thirlmere’s natural beauty. However, the valley still has the drama of its soaring fellsides, a large body of water and north of the reservoir the rural charm of St John’s in the Vale. It is stunning scenery.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Ritvo, Harriet. The Dawn of Green: Manchester, Thirlmere, and Modern Environmentalism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2009.</p><br>
<p>- popularising lecture, with copious plans & elevations</p><br>
<p>Bateman&#39;s estimate of drought year rainfall was optimistic, but not by 30%: his claim that Thirlmere could supply 50 million gallons a day even in a drought year was based, not on that being sustainable year after year, but on a continuation of Longendale practice - being prepared to run down water stocks in drought year so much that the next year was entered with lower stocks, trusting to it being a wet one.</p><br>
<p>When Thirlmere came on-stream, it did so with an aqueduct delivering only 10 million gallons a day. This had always been intended, and risk-aversion ( of Manchester Corporation, not of Bateman, who never specified the timing of the anticipated series of step increases in aqueduct capacity) should not be evaluated on the basis of a sudden increase to the 50 million gallons a day which Thirlmere was intended to eventually deliver.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong is the largest freshwater body in New Jersey, United States, about 4 square miles  in area. Located 30 miles from the Delaware River and 40 miles from Manhattan, New York City, the lake forms part of the border between Sussex and Morris counties in the state&#39;s northern highlands region. Lake Hopatcong was produced by damming and flooding of two ponds, known as the Great Pond and Little Pond, and the Musconetcong River, its natural outlet. Historically known as a resort lake for vacationing New Yorkers, it is now a mostly suburban residential lake.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The exact origin of the name Hopatcong is unknown, though it is most commonly attributed to the Lenape Indian word for "stone water," or "stone over water". Some linguists believe "Hopatcong" to be a derivative of the Lenape word hapakonoesson, meaning "pipe stone". One explanation of the origin of the word Hopatcong is that it was a derivation from the Lenni Lenape word Huppakong meaning "honey waters of many coves", but this wording was probably invented at the beginning of the 20th century to stimulate tourism.</p><br>
<p>Before the late 1700s, Lake Hopatcong was known by several names, including Great Pond and Little Pond (before flooding into a single lake), Sandhay Sea (circa 1648), Brookland Pond (mid-1700s), and Musconetcong Pond (1769).</p><br>
<h2>Lake formation</h2><br>
<p>Before the last ice age, the waters of the prehistoric Hopatcong basin fed into the Raritan River. The glacier that shaped much of the New Jersey Highlands formed a long terminal moraine that forced water from the basin into the Musconetcong River. The glacier left behind two ponds, nearly two miles apart.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1700s, the Great Pond stretched between Henderson Bay and today&#39;s Hopatcong State Park. Little Pond was a small body of water to the south of Woodport. The two lakes were first dammed in 1750. By 1831, Lake Hopatcong had been flooded to nearly its current shape.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>The Lenape Indians discovered the area of Lake Hopatcong about 12,000 years ago. They settled near the Great Pond and Little Pond, which provided abundant fish and forested shores with ample game. The waters became important to the traditions of the matrilineal clans of Native Americans, many of whom came to drink before ceremonies.</p><br>
<h3>Colonial development</h3><br>
<p>Colonial exploration of the Great and Little Ponds began in the 1600s. Between 1750 and 1764, a dam was built on the Musconetcong River for the Brookland forge and mill where the river empties from the lake (now the area of Hopatcong State Park), raising the water level by about six feet (2 m) and joining the Great and Little Ponds into one. By this time, most of the local Lenape population had died of disease or left the area.</p><br>
<p>In the years that followed the American Revolution, little development occurred near Lake Hopatcong because of the mountainous terrain.</p><br>
<h3>Industrialization</h3><br>
<p>More than 900 feet above sea level, Lake Hopatcong served as a natural high point and primary water supply for the Morris Canal between the Delaware River and New York Harbor. In 1831, the Morris Canal Company purchased the Brookland forge site and replaced the dam with its own, with the intention of using the lake water to supply the Morris Canal, which would connect Phillipsburg to Newark. This new dam raised the water 12 ft (3.66 m) above the original level of Great Pond, and caused the Great Pond to connect with Little Pond and form the current Lake Hopatcong.</p><br>
<p>The flooding and subsequent formation of a single, large lake created a new geography of the area. Halsey Island and Raccoon Island, the only two true islands on Lake Hopatcong, were disconnected from the mainland. Bertrand Island and Liffy Island formed as peninsulas. Other changes included the creation of Prospect Point, the backflowing of the River Styx in Hopatcong to create an inlet, and King Cove and the south end of the lake near Landing.</p><br>
<p>In the 1850s, the Morris and Essex became the first railroad to reach Lake Hopatcong on the southern end. In the 1860s, the Ogden Mine Railroad used Nolan&#39;s Point to transfer ore from northern New Jersey mines into canal boats. The railroad and canal system were the chief means of transporting coal, iron and zinc across New Jersey in the 1860s. In 1866, over 880,000 tons of freight was transported on the canal.</p><br>
<h3>Resort destination</h3><br>
<p>In 1882, passenger rail service came to Lake Hopatcong, brought by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, which terminated at Nolan&#39;s Point. This turned the lake into a popular summer resort.</p><br>
<p>Among the hotels built to support the growing tourism industry was the luxurious Breslin Hotel, constructed in Van Every Cove in Mount Arlington with 250 rooms and electricity. During peak summer season, the lake was so popular that hotel rooms were difficult to come by and some visitors resorted to camping near the lake.</p><br>
<p>Various amusements sprang up around the lake. Bertrand Island Amusement Park was open for the late spring, summer, and early fall seasons. The island also hosted beauty pageants, including an unofficial 1934 Miss America. The Lake Hopatcong Yacht Club, constructed in 1910 on Bertrand Island, remains a landmark.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong hosted several strong chess tournaments in the 1920s, including the Ninth American Chess Congress in 1923, which was won by Frank Marshall and Abraham Kupchik, and another tournament in 1926, which was won by world champion José Raúl Capablanca.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong flourished in the 1920s, and many famous people owned property on the lake, including Vaudevilles Joe Cook, who owned Sleepless Hollow in Davis Cove; Vaudevilles Owen McGiveney (father to Maura McGiveney), who owned a house in the River Styx section for more than 30 years; actress Lotta Crabtree, who owned the Attol Tryst home in Mount Arlington; and inventor and chemist Hudson Maxim. Their presence attracted many famous visitors, including Babe Ruth, Bud Abbot, Bert Lahr, and Milton Berle.</p><br>
<h3>Conversion to residential lake</h3><br>
<p>Tourism and other business endeavors near the lake, hit hard by the Great Depression, waned in the 1930s and 1940s. Permanent residences were constructed in the area, including small bungalows, in the 1940s and 50s. Much of the modern residential development surrounding the lake was completed in the 1960s and 70s.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<h4>2000 flood</h4><br>
<p>More than 14 inches of rain fell in a small area of southeastern Sussex and northwestern Morris County in northwestern New Jersey during August 11–14, 2000. Doppler radar estimates of total rainfall for the 4-day period reached about 15 inches along the border between Sussex and Morris Counties. A severe thunderstorm on August 12 dropped so much rain in six hours that it was judged a 1,000-year event.</p><br>
<p>Peak flows at the USGS gauges on Lake Hopatcong (01455400) and Musconetcong River (01455500), among others, were the highest ever recorded. These gauges are at sites that drain areas that received 10 or more inches of rain during August 11–14. Peak flows on Lake Hopatcong and on the Musconetcong River just downstream from the lake exceeded those of a 100-year flood.</p><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong sustained flooding damage, particularly the Great Cove area at Nolan&#39;s Point.</p><br>
<h4>2008-09 drawdown</h4><br>
<p>Every five years, starting the day after Labor Day, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection’s (DEP) water level management plan allows the lake to be lowered five feet to allow for inspection of the dam structure, property owners’ repairs to lakeshore structures, aquatic vegetation control, and silt and drainage material removal from areas around the lake.</p><br>
<p>From December 2008 to January 2009, the DEP left the dam open almost three weeks too long, which caused the water level to drop almost a foot below the normal drawdown level. A coalition of residents and business owners filed suit against the DEP and the State of New Jersey, as of 2009 it was being appealed in local court. The suit claims that the DEP, against their own policy, carelessly allowed an excess of 1.5 e9USgal of water to be released through the dam.</p><br>
<p>On May 11, 2009, the American Power Boat Association (APBA) and the Lake Hopatcong Racing Association (LHRA) decided to postpone their annual races due to the low water level. However, with the large amount of rainfall that was recorded in the month of June, the lake returned to its proper level above the normal average depth. The return of the water level came just in time for the beginning of summer and the arrival of the weather required for boating.</p><br>
<p>In July 2014, there were reports of a 15-foot boa constrictor seen in the lake, but officials by August mostly figured it was a myth or a hoax. According to one report, the reports caused a 10% drop in tourism to the lake during the summer of 2014.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong is now mostly a residential lake whose few public access points include Hopatcong State Park and Lee&#39;s County Park Marina. Most of the shoreline is privately owned by individual lakefront residents, homeowner or community associations, or private businesses (e.g., restaurants and marinas).</p><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong, unlike most lakes in New Jersey (other than Greenwood Lake on the New York border and Lake Lackawanna in Byram), has bars and restaurants that are accessible directly by boat. Popular tourist attractions on the lake include the Hopatcong State Park, The Lake Hopatcong Historical Museum, and the Lake Hopatcong Yacht Club.</p><br>
<p>On November 22, 2005, the EPA gave the Lake Hopatcong Commission a federal grant of $745,000 to improve the water quality and prevent phosphorus from entering the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Lake management</h2><br>
<p>Lake Hopatcong is shared by two counties (Sussex and Morris) and four boroughs and townships (Mount Arlington, Hopatcong, Jefferson Twp, and Roxbury Twp).</p><br>
<p>At some point in the 20th century, decisions about lake management were shaped by the state-funded Lake Hopatcong Regional Planning Board, which made recommendations to the state. Made up of representatives from each town, county, and the state, the board proved ineffective. Weeds proliferated, water quality declined, and recreation suffered.</p><br>
<p>In January 2001, Governor of New Jersey Christine Whitman signed a bill to create the Lake Hopatcong Commission, a state-funded governing body with an annual budget to maintain, upgrade and protect the lake. The commission consists of 11 members: a representative from Morris county, Sussex county, Hopatcong, Jefferson Twp, Mount Arlington, and Roxbury Twp, and five state members, including one from the Department of Environmental Protection and one from Community Affairs. The chairperson of the commission and two other public members are appointed by the governor.</p><br>
<p>But the commission has seen annual budget cuts since its inception, and has provided little more than weed harvesting services. In 2012, the state took over the weed harvesting services through Hopatcong State Park. The Lake Hopatcong Commission was not provided state funding for 2013 and now operates solely on grants. The commission administrator was laid off on December 21, 2012, and administrative responsibilities for grants are managed by Jefferson Township.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>With the probable exception of the Delaware River, Lake Hopatcong is home to the greatest variety of gamefish species of any waterway in New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Each spring, the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife stocks the lake with rainbow trout, and in past years also stocked brook and brown trout, although they have not typically held over and survived the summers, due to an absence of cold, deep, oxygenated pockets of water in the lake. Largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, sunfish, yellow and white perch, rock bass, bluegill, crappie, chain pickerel, channel catfish, bullhead, and carp all inhabit the lake. Eels also have been caught. Hybrid striped bass, walleye, and most recently, muskellunge have been stocked within the last few decades and now are thriving. Catfish also are stocked from time to time. The main forage is the abundant alewife herring, (Clupea vernalis), the basis of the lake&#39;s fish food chain.</p><br>
<p>Cardigan Island  is a small, uninhabited island lying north of Cardigan, in Ceredigion, south-west Wales. It reaches a height of 52 m  a.s.l., and 38 acres in extent.</p><br>
<p>Lying in the estuary of the River Teifi, it is known for having a small colony of grey seals. It is within 200 metres of the Welsh coastline near Gwbert. It is owned and managed by the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales.</p><br>
<p>The island was once the home of puffins and Manx shearwater. A guide book in the 1890s referred to the puffins as “Welsh parrots”. In 1924 Welsh writer and naturalist Ronald Lockley wrote that there were probably 25 to 30 pairs on the island. However, in 1934 the liner Herefordshire ran aground on the island in a storm, and rats made it ashore. Over a period of years they ate the eggs and chicks of nesting seabirds, and wiped out the island’s population of puffin and Manx shearwater, which have never returned.</p><br>
<p>Today birds such as guillemots, razorbills, cormorants, shags, fulmars and a variety of sea-gulls all nest on the island. Bottlenose dolphins and Atlantic grey seals are also often seen in the sea around the island.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate complex is a group of six buildings in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in the United States. Covering a total of 10 acre next to the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, the buildings include:</p><br>
<p>Watergate West (2700 Virginia Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate 600 (600 New Hampshire Ave NW), office building not involved in the Watergate scandal</p><br>
<p>Watergate Hotel (2650 Virginia Avenue NW)</p><br>
<p>Watergate East (2500 Virginia Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate South (700 New Hampshire Avenue NW), cooperative apartments</p><br>
<p>Watergate Office Building (2600 Virginia Ave NW), the office building where the Watergate burglary happened</p><br>
<p>Built between 1963 and 1971, the Watergate was considered one of Washington&#39;s most desirable living spaces, popular with members of Congress and political appointees in the executive branch. The complex has been sold several times since the 1980s. In the 1990s, it was split up and its component buildings and parts of buildings were sold to various owners.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, then located on the sixth floor of the Watergate Office Building, was burglarized, documents were photographed, and telephones were wiretapped. The name "Watergate" and the suffix "-gate" have since become synonymous with political scandals in the United States and elsewhere.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Watergate superblock is bounded on the north by Virginia Avenue, on the east by New Hampshire Avenue, on the south by F Street, and on the west by the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway. It is in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood overlooking the Potomac River, next to the Kennedy Center and the embassy of Saudi Arabia. The nearest Metro station, 0.4 miles distant, is Foggy Bottom-GWU.</p><br>
<h3>Site history</h3><br>
<p>For more than a century, the land now occupied by the Watergate complex belonged to the Gas Works of the Washington Gas Light Company, which produced "manufactured gas" (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, and other flammable and nonflammable gases) for heating, cooking, and lighting throughout the city. Gas production ceased at the site in 1947, and the plant was demolished shortly thereafter.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, the World Bank considered building its international headquarters here and on the adjacent site (which now houses the Kennedy Center), but rejected the site for unspecified reasons in favor of its current location at 1818 H Street NW in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<h2>Name origins</h2><br>
<p>The name "Watergate" relates to numerous aspects of its physical and historical context.</p><br>
<p>The complex sits near the eastern terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which operated from 1831 to 1924 and is now a National Historical Park. The remains of the gravity dam across Rock Creek, as well as Waste Weir #1 are at this site. Land once owned by the canal company was part of the 10 acre site purchased in 1960 by the project&#39;s developer, Rome-based Società Generale Immobiliare (SGI).</p><br>
<p>In his 2009 book Presidential Power on Trial: From Watergate to All the Presidents Men, William Noble wrote that the Watergate "got its name from overlooking the gate&#39; that regulated the flow of water from the Potomac River into the Tidal Basin at flood tide."</p><br>
<p>Another namesake is the noted restaurant, the "Water Gate Inn" (1942–1966), that operated on the site before the Watergate complex was built.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, Washington Post writer John Kelly argued that the name was most directly linked to the "Water Steps" or "Water Gate," a set of ceremonial stairs west of the Lincoln Memorial that led down to the Potomac. The steps had been originally planned as a ceremonial gateway to the city and an official reception area for dignitaries arriving in Washington, D.C., via water taxi from Virginia, though they never served this function. Instead, beginning in 1935, the steps faced a floating performance stage on the Potomac River on which open-air concerts were held. Up to 12,000 people would sit on the steps and surrounding grass and listen to symphonies, military bands, and operas. The music venue was depicted in scenes in the motion pictures Houseboat and Born Yesterday (1950). The barge concerts ended in 1965 when jet airliner service began at National Airport and the noise impaired the venue&#39;s viability.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The proposed complex</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate complex was developed by the Italian firm SGI. The company purchased the 10 acre that belonged to the defunct Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in February 1960 for $10 million. The project was announced on October 21, 1960. The apartment buildings included two-story units on the first and second floors, while the top-floor units had private rooftop terraces and fireplaces. and was intended to help define the area as a business and residential rather than industrial district. The Watergate complex was intended to be a "city within a city," and provide so many amenities that residents would not need to leave. Among these were a 24-hour receptionist, room service provided by the Watergate Hotel, health club, restaurants, shopping mall, medical and dental offices, grocery, pharmacy, post office, and liquor store. At the time, it was also the largest renewal effort in the District of Columbia undertaken solely with private funds.</p><br>
<p>Initially, the project was to cost $75 million and consist of six 16-story buildings comprising 1,400 apartment units, a 350-room hotel, office space, shops, 19 luxury "villas" (townhouses), and three-level underground parking for 1,250 vehicles. The Watergates curved structures were designed to emulate two nearby elements. The first was the proposed Inner Loop Expressway, a curving freeway expected to be built just in front of the Watergate within the next decade. The second was the nearby Kennedy Center, then in the planning stage and whose original design was supposed to be curvilinear. Although the Kennedy Center later adopted a rectangular shape for cost reasons, the Watergate complexs design did not change. Incidentally, the curved structures would also give apartment dwellers an excellent view of the Potomac River. Because of the curves in the structure, the Watergate complex was one of the first major construction projects in the United States in which computers played a significant role in the design work.</p><br>
<h3>Approval controversies</h3><br>
<p>Because the District of Columbia is the seat of the United States government, proposals for buildings in the city (particularly those in the downtown area, near federal buildings and monuments) must pass through an extensive, complex, and time-consuming approval process. The approval process for the Watergate complex had five stages. The first stage considered the proposed project as a whole as well as the first proposed building.</p><br>
<p>In December 1961, 14 months after the project was publicly announced, the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) voiced its concern that the project&#39;s 16-story buildings would overshadow the Lincoln Memorial and the proposed "National Cultural Center" (later to be called the John F. Kennedy Center for Performing Arts). At the time, the District of Columbia had a 90 ft height limit on all buildings except for those located exclusively along business streets. To obtain a height waiver, SGI would have to include retail office space in the complex, but the site was then zoned only for apartment buildings. Thus, initial approval first had to be won from the District of Columbia Zoning Commission.</p><br>
<p>By the time the DCZC met to consider approval in mid-April 1962, the cost of the project had been scaled back to $50 million. Because the District of Columbia lacked home rule, DCZC planners were reluctant to act without coordinating with agencies of the federal government. The Commission of Fine Arts also had concerns: it felt some of the land should be preserved as public space Three days after the DCZC meeting, the USCFA announced it was putting a "hold" on the Watergate development until its concerns were addressed. In May 1962, the NCPC reviewed the project. Additional revisions in the design plan pushed the cost back up to $65 million, even though only 17 villas were now planned. Based on this proposal, the NCPC approved the Watergate plan.</p><br>
<p>With the support of the NCPC, SGI dug in its heels: It declared it was not interested in developing the unsightly, abandoned commercial site unless its basic curvilinear design (now called "Watergate Towne") was approved, and it lobbied DCZC commissioners in late May, lecturing them on the District&#39;s architectural heritage and the beauty of modern architecture. The three briefed President John F. Kennedy on the issue, but it was not clear who made the decision to request the height reduction or who made the request public. The White House announcement surprised many, and offended federal and city planners, who saw it as presidential interference in their activities.</p><br>
<p>SGIs chief architect, Gábor Ács, and Watergate chief architect Luigi Moretti flew to New York City on May 17 and defended the complexs design in a three-hour meeting with USCFA members. SGI agreed to shrink three of the planned buildings in the development to 13 stories (112 ft), with the remaining building rising to 130 ft. The final plan broke one building into two, creating five rather than four construction projects. Moretti later admitted he probably would have lowered the height of the buildings anyway, and thought that the approval process had gone relatively smoothly. Construction was expected to begin in spring 1963 and last five years.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate project faced one final controversy. The group Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State began a national letter-writing campaign opposing the project, alleging that the zoning waivers would not have been given had the Vatican not been a major investor in SGI. By mid-November 1962, more than 2,000 protest letters had been sent to Congress and another 1,500 to the White House. But the group&#39;s attempt to stop construction failed, and the project went forward.</p><br>
<p>The project won its $44 million financial backing in late 1962, and its construction permits in May 1963. The builder was Magazine Bros. Construction. Groundbreaking occurred in August 1963, and major excavation work was complete by May 1964.</p><br>
<p>The USA Commission on Fine Arts attempted once more to revise the project. In October 1963, the USCFA alleged that the height of the Watergate complex, as measured from the parkway in front of it, would exceed the agreed-upon height restrictions. Luxury penthouse apartments, however, could extend above the 140 ft limit if they were set back from the edge of the building and the 14th floor was foregone. With these adjustments, the total cost of the first apartment complex (excluding plumbing, electricity, and decoration) was estimated at $12,184,376.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Construction proceeded. The foundation and basement of the first building, the 110 ft Watergate East, were completed by September 1964, and the metal and concrete superstructure rose in October. In September 1964, the Watergate&#39;s developers signed a first-of-its-kind agreement under which the Washington Gas Light Co. would provide the entire complex with its heating and air conditioning. The Watergate East was completed in May 1965, and a month later the first model apartment unit was opened to the public for viewing. The building formally opened on October 23, 1965, and the first tenants moved in a few days later. Prices for the 238 cooperative apartment units ranged from $17,000 for efficiencies to more than $250,000 for penthouses, and were almost completely sold out by April 1967. The average apartment contained two bedrooms, two-and-a-half baths, a dining room, and a kitchen, and cost $60,000. Each parking space in the underground garage cost $3,000. The tenants took title to their building on April 8, 1966. In November, a Safeway supermarket, a Peoples Drug (now known as CVS pharmacy), beauty salon, barber shop, bank, bakery, liquor store, florist, dry cleaner, post office, upscale shops, and high-end restaurant took up residency in the retail space on the ground floor. Riverview Realty was the leasing agent for the complex.</p><br>
<p>Construction began on the second building, the 11-story office building and hotel, in February 1965. Both opened on March 30, 1967; the Watergate Hotel welcomed its first guests the same day.</p><br>
<p>The third building in the complex, Watergate South, opened in June 1968. It contained 260 residential units, more than any other building in the complex.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the fourth building in the complex, the Watergate West apartments, began in July 1967. Apartments in the unfinished building, priced from $30,000 to $140,000, began selling in October 1967, an indication of how popular the complex was with District residents. Construction was completed in 1969.</p><br>
<h3>The 5th building</h3><br>
<p>Controversy arose over the construction of the Watergate Office Building, the complexs fifth and final structure. Its original design called for a 140 ft structure with the upper floors set back to create more space and light. The general counsel for the Kennedy Center told the USCFA that the Watergate Town (the development had dropped the "e") was planning a 170 ft building that would harm the aesthetics of the Kennedy Center and intrude on its park-like surroundings. The Watergates attorneys responded that their building would stay within the agreed-upon 140 ft height.</p><br>
<p>The disagreement continued for nearly two years, delaying the planned fall 1967 start to construction. Watergate apartment residents such as Senator Wayne Morse lobbied the USFCA, DCZC, and NCPC to force SGI to accede to the Kennedy Centers wishes. In November 1967, the USCFA reaffirmed its approval of the Watergate project. When the DCZC appeared on the verge of giving its approval as well, the Kennedy Center argued that the DCZC had no jurisdiction over the controversy. The DCZC disagreed, and re-asserted its jurisdiction. The Districts legal counsel disagreed, giving the DCZC the go-ahead to reaffirm (or not) its approval ruling, which the Zoning Commission did on November 30, 1967.</p><br>
<p>Although it appeared that SGI was winning the legal battle over the fifth building, D.C. city planners attempted to mediate the dispute between the Kennedy Center and the Watergate and achieve a contractual rather than legal solution. Three separate proposals were made to both sides on December 7, 1967. On April 22, 1968, SGI agreed to turn its fifth building slightly to the southwest in order to open up the Watergate complex a little more and give the Kennedy Center a bit of open space. Although the Kennedy Center accepted the proposal, it demanded that the fifth building include apartment units, rather than be completely devoted to office space, to maintain the areas residential nature. The fight now moved to the NCPC. In June 1968, the NCPC held a hearing at which more than 150 Watergate apartment residents clashed with SGI officials over the nature of the final building. On August 8, 1968, SGI and the Kennedy Center reached a resolution, agreeing that only 25 percent of the fifth buildings 1,700,000 ft&sup2; would be used as office space and that the remaining space would become apartment units. The NCPC approved the revised plan in November 1968, and the DCZC did so five weeks later, specifically zoning the building for nonprofit and professional use only.</p><br>
<p>The fifth building was completed in January 1971. Its first tenant was the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, which secured occupancy in February 1971, and its first major tenant was the Manpower Evaluation and Development Institute, which leased the entire eighth floor. In October 1972, several high-end fashion boutiques, jewelers, and a restaurant opened in a retail space named "Les Champs."</p><br>
<p>The total cost of the project was $78 million.</p><br>
<h3>Critical reception</h3><br>
<p>The Watergates initial reception was poor, but the complex soon became recognized as one of D.C.s finest examples of modern architecture. When models of the Watergate were unveiled in 1961, critics said the structure "would ruin the waterfront". Architectural critics called the detailing "clunky".</p><br>
<p>The Washington Star newspaper, however, was an early proponent of the Watergate. In May 1962, it editorialized: "It is true that the so-called curvilinear design is at variance with most commercial architecture in Washington. But in our opinion the result, which places a premium on public open space and garden-like surroundings, and which proposes a quality of housing that would rank with the finest in the city, would be a distinct asset." The curving design has continued to draw praise. A noted 2006 guidebook to the citys architecture concluded that the Watergate brought a "welcome fluidity" to the citys boxy look. Others praised the complexs internal public spaces. When the Watergate East opened in 1965, The Washington Post called these areas opulent and evocative of the best in Italian design. The New York Times characterized the design as "sweeping," and complimented each buildings spectacular views of the Potomac River, Virginia skyline, and monuments. Many residents later said the flowing lines reminded them of a graceful ship.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate II</h3><br>
<p>In 1970, as the Watergate was nearing completion, SGI proposed building a "Watergate II" apartment, hotel, and office complex on the waterfront in Alexandria, Virginia, across the Potomac River from the original Watergate. Although the project initially received support from Alexandria city officials and business people, residents of the city&#39;s Old Town strongly objected. The project stalled for two years due to protests from residents and a land dispute regarding title to the waterfront land on which the project was to be sited.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate II project was eventually abandoned in favor of a much larger complex near Landmark Mall in Alexandria (a site nowhere near water).</p><br>
<h2>Individual buildings at the Watergate</h2><br>
<p>The entire Watergate complex was initially owned by Watergate Improvements, Inc., a division of SGI. In 1969, the Vatican sold its interest in SGI and no longer was part-owner of the Watergate. Although the Watergate was considered one of the most glamorous residences in the city, as early as 1970 residents and businesses complained of substandard construction, including a leaking roof and poor plumbing and wiring.</p><br>
<p>The three Watergate Apartment buildings total some 600 residential units. Plácido Domingo, Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Watergate South), Alan Greenspan, Paul ONeill, Condoleezza Rice, and Rose Mary Woods. The Watergates popularity among members of Congress and high-ranking executive branch political appointees has remained strong ever since the complex opened. So many members of the Nixon administration settled there that the Washington, D.C., press commented on it and nicknamed it the "Republican Bastille". The complex enjoyed a renaissance during the early 1980s and became known as the "White House West" due to the large number of Reagan administration officials living there.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate complex changed hands in the 1970s, and each building was sold off separately in the 1990s and 2000s (decade) (see below). Strict lease agreements, however, have kept the apartment buildings in residents&#39; hands: In the Watergate South, for example, owners cannot rent their unit until a full year has passed, and no lease may last more than two years. Several buildings were sold in the 1990s (for details, see below). In 2005, all of the retail space in the complex was put up for sale.</p><br>
<p>Little redevelopment of the site has occurred in the 40 years since the Watergate was first built. The complex still includes three luxury apartment buildings, the hotel/office building, and two office buildings. The entire development was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 21, 2005.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate East</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate East apartment building is probably the second-best known of the five buildings in the development. It became the most sought-after living location in the city when it opened in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Problems with the buildings construction became apparent shortly after its occupancy. The roof was leaking by 1968. The Washington Post published reports in October 1968 that SGI refused to fix the leaks unless residents dropped their opposition to the construction of the complexs fifth building. Another lawsuit, filed in February 1970, sought exclusive access to the underground parking garage the cooperative claimed as its own, and demanded that the developer stop selling spaces in the residents&#39; parking area. SGI filed a $4 million counterclaim alleging "malicious embarrassment" and five years later paid residents $600,000 to settle the cases.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate East was also the site of a major protest in 1970. In the weeks prior to the jury verdict in the trial of the Chicago Seven (in Chicago, Illinois), political activists began planning and then advertising that a protest would occur at the home of United States Attorney General John N. Mitchell (who lived in the Watergate East). As expected, the verdict was handed down on February 18, 1970 (all the defendants were found not guilty of conspiracy but five were found guilty of incitement to riot). That night, more than 200 people rallied at D.C.s All Souls Unitarian Church to prepare for the mass protest demonstration the next day. On February 19, several hundred protestors gathered in front of the Watergate East and attempted to enter the building. Several hundred police, bused in to prevent the demonstration, engaged in street fighting with protestors, forced them to retreat, and eventually launched several tear gas canisters to disperse the crowd. More than 145 protesters were arrested. Although a second protest was expected the following day, it never emerged and police spent the day drinking coffee and eating cookies and pastries baked at the Watergate Easts pastry shop.</p><br>
<p>The Watergate East tenants&#39; cooperative refinanced its mortgage some time after 2000, and bought the land beneath its building.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate Hotel and Office Building</h3><br>
<p>The Watergate Hotel and Office Building is the best known of the five buildings in the Watergate development.</p><br>
<h4>The Watergate Hotel</h4><br>
<p>Management and ownership of the hotel have changed several times since the mid-1980s. In 1986, Cunard Line, the cruise ship company, took over management of the hotel and began redecorating and refurbishing it. The British Coal Board pension fund sold the hotel portion of the building to a British-Japanese consortium in 1990 for $48 million. But many residents in other parts of the complex (some of whom owned the 25 percent of the hotel not sold to Blackstone) The hotel closed on August 1, 2007, for a $170 million 18-month renovation, during which the hotel rooms were intended to be roughly doubled in size to 650 ft&sup2;. But the renovation never occurred, and the building sat empty—consuming $100,000 to $150,000 a month in security, heating, electricity, water, and other costs. Lehman Brothers, Monument Realty&#39;s financing partner, went bankrupt in 2008 and Monument was forced to attempt to sell the property. No buyer emerged and the Blackstone Group regained ownership of the hotel.</p><br>
<p>The Blackstone Group transferred the Watergate Hotel to its Trizec Properties subsidiary. Trizec did not pay the hotel&#39;s property taxes for 2008 (which amounted to $250,000), and estimated that it would take $100 million to make the hotel habitable due to the stalled 2007 renovation. Monument was outbid by developer Robert Holland and the Jumeirah Group (a luxury hotel chain based in Dubai), but the deal collapsed in November 2009 when financing fell through. Euro Capital Properties purchased the hotel in May 2010 for $45 million, with plans to rehabilitate it over the next two years.</p><br>
<p>Euro Capital announced its year-long, $85 million renovation of the hotel in January 2013. Among the improvements it wished to make were the addition of six outdoor "summer gardens" where liquor may be served. The plan would require the approval of the Advisory Neighborhood Commission, which voted to protest the liquor licenses unless the company reached an agreement with all the tenant associations in the Watergate cooperative. A year later, the company said its design team, led by the architectural firm BBGM, had completed a plan to increase the number of luxury hotel rooms to 348 from 251, renovate the lobby to add a bar and lounge, add a restaurant with some outdoor seating, and add a rooftop bar with a small water feature. Euro Capital also said it would seek a hotel management company to continue to operate the Watergate Hotel as an independent hotel. Construction on the new interior elements is planned to start in March 2014.</p><br>
<p>Euro Capital received the construction permits for its now $100 million renovation in May 2014. Architect Bahram Kamali of BBGM said the renovation will completely replace the electrical, HVAC, mechanical, and plumbing (fresh water and sewage) systems. The renovation now featured two new restaurants, upgraded ballrooms, and a new spa and fitness area. Kamali said the interior will feature high-quality, expensive plaster, stone, and wood finishes, but the exteriors iconic textured concrete balconies will remain unchanged except for repairs, repainting, and new windows. Grunley Construction will oversee all the renovations. Israeli artist and interior decorator Ron Arad designed all the metal sculptures and other work that will be featured in the hotels bar, lobby, and other interior space.</p><br>
<p>The cost of the renovation was pegged by Euro Capital at $125 million in November 2014. The 336-room hotel reopened in 2016, nine years after it closed.</p><br>
<h4>Office building</h4><br>
<p>The office building portion of the building contains 198,000 ft&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) occupied the entire sixth floor of the 11-story building at 2600 Virginia Avenue. The DNC had occupied the space since the building opened in 1967. The phone taps were monitored from the burglars rooms (first Room 419, later Room 723) at the Howard Johnsons Motor Lodge across the street at 2601 Virginia Avenue NW. During a second burglary on June 17, 1972, to replace a malfunctioning phone tap and collect more information, five of the burglars were arrested and the Watergate scandal began to unfold. A plaque on the sixth floor of the office building portion of the Watergate Hotel commemorates the break-in.</p><br>
<p>The break-in at the Democratic National Headquarters was not the first break-in at the Watergate. The first break-in, however, shares a remarkable connection with the DNC burglary. The first break-in at the complex was the burglary of a residential unit in 1969. The victim was Rose Mary Woods, President Nixons personal secretary. The burglars took jewelry and some personal items. Woods would later be accused of erasing 18 and a half minutes from President Nixons secret Oval Office audio taping system—specifically, the tape from June 20, 1972, that proved central to the Watergate scandal.</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the British coal board pension fund sold the office portion of the building (as well as the land under two of the three Watergate apartment buildings) to The JBG Companies (an American firm) and Buvermo Properties Inc. (a Dutch company). In 1997, JBG Cos. and Buvermo Properties sold the office building to the Blackstone Group&#39;s Trizec Properties division. Trizec put the office building up for sale for $100 million in 2005 and sold it to BentleyForbes Acquisitions LLC, a private firm owned by C. Frederick Wehba and members of the Los Angeles-based Webha family. BentleyForbes put the office tower up for sale on March 12, 2009. In November 2011, after 20 months on the market, the office building sold for $76 million to the Penzance Cos.</p><br>
<p>In mid-2012, the office buildings new owner began a multimillion-dollar upgrade to the Watergate Office Buildings lobby, common areas, and Virginia Avenue entrance. The modernization was complete in December 2012, and the building began leasing space again in January 2013. Hitt Contracting designed the renovations, and oversaw the construction.</p><br>
<p>Penzance sold the office building to a subsidiary of Rockwood Capital for $75 million at the end of 2016. Penzance retained a small ownership stake in the structure, and said it would continue to manage it for Rockwood.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate South</h3><br>
<p>Among the notable people who have lived at the Watergate South is former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. As with the Watergate East, residents of this building have discussed buying the land beneath their building, but there is no urgency as the lease on the land does not expire until 2070.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate West</h3><br>
<p>Construction problems and leaks at Watergate West led the press to ridicule this building, like others in the complex, as the "Potomac Titanic." On March 2, 1971, residents of the Watergate West filed a lawsuit against SGI in which they claimed their units had defective stoves, faulty air conditioning, leaky windows and balconies, and deficient plumbing. SGI said the problems were similar to those with any new building, and that it had already spent $300,000 on repairs.</p><br>
<p>Like the Watergate East, residents of this building have discussed buying the land beneath their building but do not need to do so until the land lease expires in 2070.</p><br>
<h3>Watergate 600</h3><br>
<p>Britain&#39;s National Coal Board Pension Fund sold the Watergate Office Building to John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance in the early 1990s. The building saw extensive renovations in 1997.</p><br>
<p>The Atlantic magazine owner David G. Bradley purchased the office building in 2003. The new owner renovated the building again, a project which included expanding its lobby and restaurant space.</p><br>
<p>In March 2017, Washington Real Estate Investment Trust (WashREIT) purchased the building from Bradley for $135 million. Under terms of the agreement, Bradley will also become owner of an operating unit within WashREIT. The new building owner said it would continue renovating various spaces in the structure, as well as upgrade and expand the rooftop amenities and build a new fitness center and new conference center.</p><br>
<p>Lake Wisconsin is a reservoir on the Wisconsin River in southern Wisconsin in the United States. It is located in Columbia and Sauk counties, approximately 5 mi  southeast of Baraboo and 25 mi  NNW of Madison. Today it is home to the Wisconsin wine appellation of the Lake Wisconsin AVA.</p><br>
<p>It was formed by the construction of a dam at Prairie du Sac, which was begun in 1911 and completed in 1914. It is part of the Wisconsin River system of reservoirs. The lake has a maximum depth of 40 ft (12 m). It has a shoreline of 57 mi (90 km) and an area of 9500 acres (38 km²).</p><br>
<p>Its construction effectively ended the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway connection to the Mississippi River, although commercial traffic had ended decades before completion of the dam.</p><br>
<p>The lake provides flood control and is a popular destination for recreational boating and fishing.</p><br>
<p>The Merrimac Ferry crosses the lake at Merrimac, Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>The East Siberian Sea  is a marginal sea in the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the Arctic Cape to the north, the coast of Siberia to the south, the New Siberian Islands to the west and Cape Billings, close to Chukotka, and Wrangel Island to the east. This sea borders on the Laptev Sea to the west and the Chukchi Sea to the east.</p><br>
<p>This sea is one of the least studied in the Arctic area. It is characterized by severe climate, low water salinity, and a scarcity of flora, fauna and human population, as well as shallow depths (mostly less than 50 m), slow sea currents, low tides (below 25 cm), frequent fogs, especially in summer, and an abundance of ice fields which fully melt only in August–September. The sea shores were inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous tribes of Yukaghirs, Chukchi and then Evens and Evenks, which were engaged in fishing, hunting and reindeer husbandry. They were then absorbed by Yakuts and later by Russians.</p><br>
<p>Major industrial activities in the area are mining and navigation within the Northern Sea Route; commercial fishing is poorly developed. The largest city and port is Pevek, the northernmost city of mainland Russia.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The present name was assigned to the sea on 27 June 1935 by Decree of the Soviet Government. Before that, the sea had no distinct name was intermixedly called in Russia as "Indigirskoe", "Kolymskoe", "Severnoe" (Northern), "Sibirskoe" or "Ledovitoe".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the East Siberian Sea as follows:</p><br>
<p>On the West. The Eastern limit of Laptev Sea.</p><br>
<p>On the North. A line from the Northernmost point of Wrangel Island (179°30&#39;W) to the Northern sides of the De Long Islands (including Henrietta and Jeannette Islands) and Bennett Island, thence to the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island.</p><br>
<p>On the East. From the Northernmost point of Wrangel Island through this island to Cape Blossom thence to Cape Yakan on the main land (176°40&#39;E).</p><br>
<h3>Topography</h3><br>
<p>Because it is open towards the Arctic Ocean in the north, the main gulfs of the East Siberian Sea, like the Kolyma Bay, the Kolyma Gulf and the Chaunskaya Bay, are all located in its southern limits. There are no islands in the middle of the East Siberian Sea, but there are a few islands and island groups in its coastal waters, like Ayon Island and the Medvyezhi island group. The total area of the islands is only 80 km. Some islands mostly consist of sand and ice and gradually erode.</p><br>
<p>The total catchment area is 1,342,000 km. The coastline of the sea is 3,016 km long. It makes large bends, sometimes stretching deep into the land, and has a rather different topography in the eastern and western parts. Fine bends are rare and occur only in the river deltas. The coastal section between the New Siberian Islands and the mouth of the Kolyma River is uniform, with low and slowly varying slopes. It extends landwards to the marshy tundra filled with numerous small lakes. In contrast, the coast to the east of the Kolyma River is mountainous, with steep cliffs.</p><br>
<p>The underwater topography of the shelf that forms the seabed is a plain, sloping from southwest to northeast, covered in a mixture of silt, sand and stones and lacking significant depressions and elevations. About 70% of the sea is shallower than 50 m, with predominant depths of 20–25 m. North-east to the mouth of the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers, there are deep trenches on the seabed, which are attributed to the ancient river valleys, now submerged by the sea. The region of small depths in the western part forms the Novosibirsk shoal. The greatest depths of about 150 m are found in the north-eastern part of the sea.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate is polar and is influenced by the continent and Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In winter, it is mostly affected by the continent. South-westerly and southerly winds having the speeds of 6–7 m/s (15 mph, 25 km/h) bring cold air from Siberia, so the average temperature in January is approximately −30 °C. The weather is calm, clear and stable with occasional intrusions by cyclones. Atlantic cyclones increase the wind speed and air temperature whereas Pacific ones bring clouds, storms and blizzards.</p><br>
<p>The winds blow from the north in summer; they are weak in June, strengthen to 6–7 m/s (15 mph, 25 km/h) in July and reach 10–15 m/s (33 mph, 50 km/h) in August, making the western part of the sea one of the most violent areas on the northern Russian coast. The southeastern part is however much calmer. Northerly winds result in the low average temperatures of 0–1 °C in the open sea and 2–3 °C on the coast in July. Skies are usually cloudy, with frequent drizzling rains or wet snow. Along the coasts, fogs occur 90–100 days per year, mostly in summer (68–75 days). Precipitation is low at 100–200 mm per year, but it is still larger than the evaporation volume.</p><br>
<h3>Hydrology</h3><br>
<p>The continental runoff into the East Siberian Sea is relatively small at about 250 km/year that makes only 10% of the total runoff in all the Arctic seas of Russia. The largest contribution is from the Kolyma River at 132 km, followed by the Indigirka River at 59 km. Most runoff (90%) occurs in summer; it is concentrated near the coast, owing to the weak river currents, and therefore does not significantly affect the sea hydrology. The water exchange between the neighboring seas is as follows. The annual outflow to the Laptev Sea, Chukchi Sea and Arctic Ocean is 3,240, 6,600 and 11,430 km, respectively; while the respective inflow values are 3,240, 8,800 and 9,230 km.</p><br>
<p>The surface water temperature decreases from south to north. In winter it varies between −0.2 and 0.6 °C at the river deltas and from −1.7 to −1.8 °C in the northern sea part. In summer, it warms to 7–8 °C in the bays and inlets and to 2–3 °C in the ice-free sea zones.</p><br>
<p>Surface water salinity increases from southwest to northeast. In winter and spring, it is 4–5‰ (parts per thousand) near the deltas of the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers. It increases to 28–30‰ in the sea centre, reaching 31–32‰ at its northern outskirts. Salinity decreases in summer by some 5‰ due to the snow melting. It also decreases by some 5–7‰ from the sea bottom to the surface.</p><br>
<p>There are constant currents at the sea surface directed from west to east. They are weak and thus can temporarily change direction due to the wind. The tides are semidiurnal (rising twice a day) with the amplitude between 5 and 25 cm. The tidal wave weakens toward the coast due to shallow waters. The sea level is maximal in summer, due to the river runoff, and in autumn due to the winds. It is the lowest in March–April, with the total annual fluctuations within about 70 cm. Winds bring storms with waves reaching 3–5 m in the western part whereas the eastern regions are relatively calm. The storms typically last 1–2 days in summer; they are more frequent in winter and may extend up to 3–5 days.</p><br>
<p>The sea freezes over between October–November and June–July. The ice is continuous and stationary near the coast, reaching the thickness of 2 m by the end of winter; The thickness decreases from west to east. Further into the sea, the ice cover transforms into drifting ice having the thickness of 2–3 m. The southern winter winds shift this ice northwards, making polynyas near the sea centre. There are no icebergs in the sea. Ice melting typically starts around May, first around the delta of the major Kolyma River.</p><br>
<p>In absence of industry, sea water is rather clean. Minor contaminations are found near the Novosibirsk and Wrangel islands (up to 80 µg/L), due to occasional oil spills, and in Chaunskaya Bay due to the local thermal power station and activities at the major port Pevek.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Flora and fauna are relatively scarce due to the harsh climate. The summer plankton bloom is short but intense, producing 5 million tonnes of plankton in August and September, whereas the annual production is 7 million tonnes. The nutrients in water are mostly provided by river discharges and coastal erosion. The plankton species are dominated by the Pacific species of copepods.</p><br>
<p>The sea shores and icefields host ringed seals (Phoca hispida), bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) and walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) along with their predator, polar bear (Ursus maritimus). Birds include seagulls, uria and cormorants. Sea waters are often visited by bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus), beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) and narwhal (Monodon monoceros). Major fish species are grayling and Coregonus (whitefishes), such as muksun (Coregonus muksun), broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus) and omul (Coregonus autumnalis). Also common are polar smelt, saffron cod, polar cod, flounder and Arctic char.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The coast of the East Siberian Sea was inhabited for ages by the native peoples of northern Siberia such as Yukaghirs and Chukchi (eastern areas). Those tribes were engaged in fishing, hunting and reindeer husbandry, as reindeer sleds were essential for transportation and hunting. They were joined and absorbed by Evens and Evenks around the 2nd century and later, between 9th and 15th centuries, by much more numerous Yakuts. All those tribes moved north from the Baikal Lake area avoiding confrontations with Mongols. Whereas they all practised shamanism, they spoke different languages.</p><br>
<p>The sea was navigated by Russian sea-farers, moving from one river mouth to another in their kochs as early as the 17th century. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev and Fedot Alekseev sailed the coast of the East Siberian Sea from the Kolyma to river Anadyr in the Bering Sea. Systematic exploration and mapping of the sea and its coasts was carried out by a series of expeditions in 1735–42, 1820–24, 1822, 1909 and 1911–14.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the coastal settlement of Ambarchik, located at the delta of the Kolyma River, was used as a transient labor camp from which prisoners were transported to other northern camps of the Gulag system. While stationed at Ambarchik, prisoners were employed to build most of the port infrastructure and to unload the incoming ships. Later, due to shallow waters, the shipping was gradually transferred to Chersky in the lower reaches of the Kolyma, in order to accommodate larger vessels. As a result of this transfer, the port and settlement have been abandoned. Nowadays, Ambarchik only hosts a meteorological station operated by a few staff members.</p><br>
<p>Another two labour camps of the Gulag system were later opened near Pevek, namely Chaunlag (1951–1953) and Chaunchukotlag (1949–1957). Both contained about 10,000 inmates used in the mine and construction works.</p><br>
<h2>Human activities</h2><br>
<p>The southern coast of the sea is shared by the Sakha Republic on the west and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of Russia on the east. The coastal settlements are few and small, with the typical population below 100. The only city is Pevek (population 5,206), which is the northernmost city in Russia. There are gold mines near Leningradsky and Pevek, but many mines have been closed recently, for example, tin mines at Pevek in the 1990s, that resulted in outflow of population. So, the Logashkino settlement, which used to be a notable East Siberian Sea port, was abolished in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The sea is used mostly for transportation of goods across the northern coast of Russia during August–September. The navigation is hindered even in summer by the remaining floating ice which is also brought down to the southern shores by occasional winds. Fishery and hunting of marine animals is still practised as traditional activities, but has only local importance. Fishery mostly targets salmon, halibut and crab. Data exist on fish production, which in 2005 was distributed, in thousand tonnes as follows: sardine (1.6), Arctic cisco (1.8), Bering cisco (2.2), broad whitefish (2.7), Muksun (2.8) and others (3.6).</p><br>
<p>The principal port is Pevek (in the Chaunskaya Bay) After the breakup of the Soviet Union, commercial navigation in the Arctic went into decline. Nowadays more or less regular shipping occurs only between Pevek and Vladivostok. Ports in the northern Siberian coast located between Dudinka and Pevek see next to no shipping at all.</p><br>
<p>Since 1944, most electricity for the region is provided by the 30 MW thermal power station of Pevek. It is ageing and consumes much oil which has to be brought from far away. Therefore, there was a project to replace the station by a floating 70 MW atomic power station by 2015. (failed)</p><br>
